Cell Biology,Metabolism, and Genetic Engineering Flashcards

Flashcards about cell biology, metabolism, and genetic engineering.

Lysosomes

Cell organelles containing digestive enzymes.

Nucleoid

The location within a prokaryotic cell where genetic material assembles; it is not membrane-enclosed.

Binary Fission

Cell division process in prokaryotes.

Mitosis

Normal form of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells, resulting in two identical daughter cells.

Mitosis Definition

A specific stage in the cell cycle where somatic cells divide resulting in two identical daughter cell.

Meiosis

Special form of nuclear division that results in cells with half the original chromosome number, creating gametes.

Meiosis Definition

The process by which sex cells divide, resulting in four haploid gametes.

Psychrophile

Microbes that thrive in low temperatures (below 15°C).

Mesophile

Microbes that prefer moderate temperatures (between 10°C - 50°C).

Thermophile

Microbes that thrive in high temperatures (above 45°C).

Acidophiles

Microbes that can live at low pH.

Alkaliphiles

Microbes that can live at high pH.

Nonhalophile

Organisms that grow optimally below the salt concentration of seawater.

Halotolerant

Organisms that do not require salt for growth but can grow in moderately salty conditions.

Halophile

Extremophiles that thrive in high salt concentrations.

Obligate Aerobes

Require oxygen to survive.

Facultative Anaerobes

Can use oxygen but also grow without it.

Obligate Anaerobes

Die in the presence of oxygen.

Heterotrophs

Obtain carbon from organic compounds.

Autotrophs

Obtain carbon from CO₂.

Chemotrophs

Obtain energy from chemicals.

Phototrophs

Obtain energy from light.

Catabolic Pathways

Energy-releasing reactions (breaking bonds).

Anabolic Pathways

Reactions in which energy is used (building bonds).

NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)

An electron delivery molecule which powers metabolism + manages energy.

Cellular Respiration (Aerobic)

Metabolic pathway that requires oxygen to metabolize carbohydrate molecules, releasing energy transferred to ATP.

Glycolysis

The initial breakdown of glucose into pyruvate in the cytoplasm (not mitochondria).

Krebs Cycle

Energy of acetyl-co-enzyme A is transferred to NAD+ to form many energized electrons (NADH) for the electron transport chain.

Fermentation (Anaerobic)

In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate remains in the cytoplasm and is converted into waste products. It regenerates NAD+ by converting pyruvate into ethanol (alcohol) or lactate.

Photosynthesis

Conversion of light energy into chemical energy for phototropes.

Oxygenic Photosynthesis

Oxidation of H₂O to make O₂ (plants, algae, cyanobacteria).

Anoxygenic Photosynthesis

Light energy is captured and converted to ATP, but does not produce O₂ (groups of bacteria + archaea).

Transcription

The synthesis of mRNA by RNA polymerase using DNA as a template.

Translation

The synthesis of a polypeptidic chain (or protein) in the ribosome using the mRNA as a template.

RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

A single stranded molecule with uracil, ribose sugar. It is an intermediate molecule used to help DNA code proteins.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Transports amino acids to site of protein synthesis.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

Combines with proteins to form ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis.

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Directs amino acid sequence of proteins.

Small Interfering RNA (siRNA)

Affects gene expression; used by scientists to knock out a gene being studied.

Bioengineering Applications: Protein Therapeutics

Cells are grown in a large container and produce a protein, which is collected regularly.

Primers

Synthetic deoxynucleotides that are complementary to a target during PCR. dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP.

Taq DNA polymerase

Survives high temperatures because it is an extremophile, that extends from the primer to make new copy of DNA (5' to 3').

Nucleotide Analogues

Dideoxynucleotide analogues which are labelled with fluorophore and lead to termination of the DNA fragment (because lack 3'-OH for phosphodiester bond): dd ATP, dd GTP, dd CTP, ddTTP.

DNA Sequence

The order of the fluorophores detected from shortest to longest fragment.

Recombinant DNA Technology + Genetic Engineering

Modified and repurposed biological elements and processes as tools.

Molecular Cloning

Takes a genetic element and moves it to a vector/plasmid.

Recombinant DNA

A DNA molecule containing DNA from two or more sources.

Multiple Cloning Site (MCS)

A short segment of DNA that contains several restriction enzyme sites, enabling easy insertion of DNA by restriction enzyme digestion + ligation (molecular cloning).

Origin of Replication (ORI)

Directs initiation of plasmid replication and tells the cell where to begin copying the whole plasmid (independent of the host).

Selectable Marker

Allows for selection of plasmid-containing bacteria / cells by providing a survival advantage to the host.

Expression Vector

A plasmid that actually produces that gene's protein that it codes for.

Promoter

Need a strong host promoter that binds RNA polymerase effectively to enable good expression + transcription.

Ribosome-Binding Site (RBS)

Enables efficient translation in bacteria; ribosome binds to transcript to ensure translated in correct reading frame.

Restriction Enzyme

A protein that recognizes a specific, short nucleotide (DNA) sequence (recognition sequence) and cuts the DNA only at that specific site.

Transformation

Uptake of genetic material from the environment by a bacteria cell.

Transduction

Viral-based introduction of foreign DNA.

Transfection

The process by which foreign DNA is introduced into a eukaryotic cell through non-viral methods.

Genome Editing

Site-specific genome manipulation that occurs within the cell for research, treatment of disease to edit/correct genetic mutations, creating genetically modified organisms.

Noncoding Guide RNA (gRNA)

gRNA targets desired sequence to change by binding to the complementary sequence (only target sequence). Guides the Cas9 nuclease enzyme.

Cas9

Nuclease enzyme that generates a double-strand break.

Disulfide Bonds

The -SH groups in 2 cysteines can bond together to produce a disulfide bridge (-S-S-) that stabilises protein structure, and are covalent links between the same chain or between 2 amino acid chains.

Denaturation

Causes loss of protein structure and therefore function (can be permanent or reversible).

Enzymes

Proteins that are present in all living organisms and speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.

Activation Energy

The initial input of energy needed to start a reaction.

Enzyme Inhibition

Stops substrate from binding.

Competitive Inhibition

Inhibitor binds to active site, competing with the substrate.

Allosteric Inhibition

Inhibitor binds to a site other than the active site.

Enzyme Engineering

Rational design or directed evolution is completed, to change enzyme kinetics, stability, optimal conditions, or protein fusion.

Sending Cell

Sending cell secretes protein messenger signal (ligand) to instruct change.

Target Cell

Receiving cell receives ligand (has correct receptor to get signal) and responds.

Non-Target Cell

Does not receive the ligand (doesn't have correct receptor).

Cell Signaling

Cell signaling is the ability of a cell to receive information from the extracellular environment and respond appropriately.

Quorum Sensing

Bacteria engage in a mode of cell-cell signaling by monitoring population density.

Autocrine Secretion

Cell signals to itself.

Paracrine Secretion

Cell secretion affects nearby cells.

Endocrine Secretion

Cell secretion affects far away cells.

ECM-cells

Extracellular matrix, insoluble signals.

Reception

Ligand is detected and binds to the cell receptor on the cell surface or intracellularly.

Transduction

Signal is relayed and amplified through intracellular molecules.

Response

Cell overall responds to ligand with increase or decrease of a metabolic process.

Re-setting

Ligand detaches from receptor to stop cell signaling process.

Bioelectric Signalling

Communication using electric signals; changes in voltage/ electric potential.

Bioelectric Signalling Definition

A quick communication across long distances via action potential.

Action Potential

Electrical signals trigger rapid spread of information long distances.

Neurons

Transmit electrical impulses + are main cell type in nervous system.

Glial Cells

Support neurons.

Schwann Cells

Wraps around axons to form myelin sheath; increases signal speed and insulates to protect signal.

Synaptic Signal

Synaptic signal is a chemical signal that travels between nerve cells (by paracrine signaling).

Tissue

A group of cells that perform a specific function.

Epithelial Tissue

Cover exterior (skin) and interior (intestinal lining) surfaces; function as barrier/protection, secretion.

Connective Tissue

Connect cells and organs together (fat, blood, bone).

Muscle Tissue

Contractile tissue that gives movement.

Nervous Tissue

Starts and spreads electrical signals.

Organ

Two or more tissues, each one with a distinct function.

Organ Systems

Organs are grouped into organ systems that work together to carry out a particular function.

Homeostasis

When organ systems work together to maintain a balance (optimal conditions); ensure internal environment remains relatively constant, even with changes to external environment.

Pacemaker Cells

Located in upper atria, sets the pace of the heart so blood flows in the right direction.

Biomass Energy

Energy from organic material that comes from plants and animals via chemical thermal or biological transformation.

Municipal Waste

Non degradable waste.

Second Generation Biofuels

Made from non-edible biomass and uses enzyme + lignocellulosic biomass with polysaccharides and aromatic polymer lignin.