Ancient Israel and Surrounding Cultures: Key Events, Peoples, and Archaeological Methods

Philistines

A "Sea People" who settled in the southern coastal plain of Canaan around 1200 BCE; rivals of early Israel, known from battles with Saul and David.

Edomites / Idumaeans

Descendants of Esau who inhabited Edom (south of the Dead Sea); later absorbed into Judean culture under the Hasmoneans.

Moabites

People east of the Dead Sea, often at odds with Israel; featured in biblical stories like Ruth, a Moabite ancestor of David.

Cyrus

Persian king (r. 550-530 BCE) who conquered Babylon and allowed Jews to return from exile, author of the Cylinder of Cyrus.

Ben Gurion

David Ben Gurion, first Prime Minister of Israel (1948), declared independence and led during the early statehood years.

Phoenicians

Coastal traders from modern Lebanon; famous for seafaring, the alphabet, and cities like Tyre and Sidon.

Sinuhe

Egyptian official from a Middle Kingdom literary tale who fled to Canaan; his story illustrates Egypt-Canaan cultural ties.

Solomon

Son of David, Israel's third king; built the First Temple in Jerusalem and expanded the united monarchy's wealth and power.

David

Second king of Israel; united tribes, established Jerusalem as capital, and began the Davidic dynasty.

Merneptah

Egyptian pharaoh (c. 1210 BCE) whose "Israel Stele" provides the earliest mention of Israel outside the Bible.

Alexander Jannaeus

Hasmonean ruler (103-76 BCE) who combined kingship and high priesthood; known for internal strife and expansion.

Ezra and Nehemiah

Jewish leaders under Persian rule who rebuilt Jerusalem's walls and reinstituted the Torah after the Exile.

Jewish Israelis

Citizens of modern Israel who identify ethnically and/or religiously as Jewish, forming the state's majority population.

Arab Israelis

Arab citizens of Israel (about 20% of population), often identifying as Palestinian Israelis.

Samaritans

A community tracing descent from northern Israel; preserve an ancient form of Torah and worship on Mount Gerizim.

Palestinians

Arab people originating in historic Palestine; live in the West Bank, Gaza, East Jerusalem, and diaspora.

Palestinian residents of Jerusalem

Palestinians living under Israeli administration in East Jerusalem without full citizenship rights.

Assyrians

Mesopotamian empire (9th-7th centuries BCE) that destroyed the northern Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE.

Nebuchadnezzar

Babylonian king (r. 605-562 BCE) who conquered Jerusalem in 586 BCE and exiled the Judeans.

Canaanites

Indigenous Bronze Age inhabitants of Canaan; their city-states preceded Israelite settlement.

Ramses III

Egyptian pharaoh (r. 1186-1155 BCE) who repelled the Sea Peoples and fortified Egypt's borders.

Herod

Roman-backed king of Judaea (r. 37-4 BCE); rebuilt the Second Temple on a grand scale.

Simeon (tribe)

One of the twelve tribes of Israel, traditionally located in the south near Judah.

Dan (tribe)

Israelite tribe originally in the coastland, later moved north to Laish, renaming it Dan.

Ethiopian Jews

Also called Beta Israel; ancient Jewish community from Ethiopia, airlifted to Israel in Operations Moses and Solomon.

Persians

Empire from modern Iran that conquered Babylon; ruled Yehud and permitted Jewish return and reconstruction.

Josiah

Reforming king of Judah (r. 640-609 BCE) who centralized worship in Jerusalem and promoted Deuteronomic law.

Babylonians

Mesopotamian empire that conquered Judah and destroyed the First Temple in 586 BCE.

Maccabeans / Hasmoneans

Jewish rebel dynasty (2nd century BCE) that won independence from Seleucid rule and founded a kingdom.

Judah Maccabeus

Leader of the Maccabean Revolt (167 BCE); purified the Temple—commemorated by Hanukkah.

Alexander the Great

Macedonian conqueror who spread Hellenistic culture and conquered the Levant in 332 BCE.

Ptolemy

Greek general who ruled Egypt after Alexander; his dynasty (Ptolemies) controlled Judaea for a time.

Seleucus

General of Alexander; founded the Seleucid Empire, which later ruled over Judea and sparked the Maccabean Revolt.

Essenes

Jewish sect near Qumran emphasizing purity and communal life; likely authors of the Dead Sea Scrolls.

City of David

The earliest urban core of Jerusalem, founded by King David as his capital around 1000 BCE.

Jerusalem

Ancient and modern capital of Israel; sacred to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

Tel Aviv / Jaffa

Modern coastal metropolis and Israel's economic center, merged with the ancient port city of Jaffa.

Mesopotamia

Region between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers; birthplace of writing and early empires.

Canaan

Ancient land encompassing modern Israel, Palestine, and Lebanon; biblical Promised Land.

Yehud

Persian-period province centered on Jerusalem, inhabited by returning Judean exiles.

Judaea

Roman and Second Temple-period region corresponding to southern Israel.

Samaria

Central highland region; capital of the northern Kingdom of Israel.

Philistia

Coastal plain of the Philistines, including Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod.

Jezreel Valley

Fertile valley linking the coast and the Jordan Valley; key ancient battleground.

Negev

Desert region in southern Israel; home to ancient trade routes and modern development towns.

Central Hill(s)

Mountainous spine of ancient Israel where many biblical tribes settled.

Persia

Modern Iran; center of the Persian Empire that ruled Judea after Babylon.

Assyria

Mesopotamian empire that conquered northern Israel in 722 BCE.

Babylonia

Southern Mesopotamia; conquered Judah and exiled its people in 586 BCE.

Idumaea

Greek name for Edom, south of Judah; inhabited by Edomites integrated into Judea.

Rome

Empire that conquered Judea in 63 BCE and destroyed the Second Temple in 70 CE.

Galilee

Northern region of Israel; home of Jesus and center of early Jewish settlement after 70 CE.

Qumran

Settlement near the Dead Sea, site of the Dead Sea Scrolls and Essene community.

Mount Gerizim

Sacred mountain for Samaritans near Shechem (modern Nablus).

Hazor

Major Canaanite city in northern Israel destroyed during Israelite conquest.

Jebus

Pre-Israelite name for Jerusalem before David's conquest.

Hebron

Ancient city south of Jerusalem; burial place of patriarchs and matriarchs.

Jericho

One of the world's oldest cities, located near the Jordan River; known for its walls.

Dan

Northernmost ancient city of Israel; marked the kingdom's northern border.

Mediterranean (and its countries)

Sea connecting Europe, Africa, and Asia; vital trade route for ancient empires.

Middle East (and its countries)

Region spanning from Egypt to Iran; cradle of early civilizations and monotheism.

Red Sea (and its Gulfs)

Sea between Africa and Arabia; route of ancient trade from Egypt to Arabia.

Dead Sea

Salt lake at the Jordan Rift Valley; lowest point on Earth, source of minerals and scroll discoveries.

Ashkelon

Coastal Philistine city south of Tel Aviv; important in trade and archaeology.

Megiddo

Strategic city controlling the Jezreel Valley; biblical Armageddon site.

Damascus

Ancient Syrian capital; continuously inhabited since antiquity.

Masada

Herodian fortress near the Dead Sea; site of the Jewish rebels' last stand (73 CE).

Maresha

Hellenistic city in Idumaea; known for rock-cut caves and multicultural population.

Gaza (city & strip)

Ancient Philistine port; today a densely populated Palestinian enclave.

Gihon / Siloam

Spring and tunnel system supplying ancient Jerusalem's water.

Egypt

Nile River civilization; biblical land of slavery and later refuge.

Judaean Desert

Arid region east of Jerusalem; site of monasticism and Dead Sea Scroll caves.

Tel Qasile

Archaeological site near Tel Aviv showing Philistine-Israelite contact. A site on the northern tip of Philsitia with various artifacts indicating cultural exchange between the two groups.

Yarkon River

River running through Tel Aviv into the Mediterranean; ancient boundary area.

Jordan (River & Valley)

Waterway from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea; symbolic in biblical and modern borders.

Phoenicia

Coastal region of modern Lebanon; homeland of seafaring traders and the alphabet.

Acco / Acre

Northern coastal city with long Canaanite, Crusader, and Ottoman history.

Ubadiyah

Early prehistoric site in the Jordan Valley with evidence of early human migration.

Golan Heights

Plateau northeast of the Sea of Galilee; strategic area disputed between Israel and Syria.

Lake of Galilee

Also called Sea of Galilee or Kinneret; freshwater lake central to biblical stories.

Seashore Plains

Fertile coastal strip along the Mediterranean, key settlement zone in ancient Canaan.

c. 1200 BCE

Marks the end of the Late Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age.

c. 1000 BCE

King David established the City of David (Jerusalem) as his capital, uniting the tribes of Israel into one monarchy.

720 / 722 BCE

The Assyrian Empire conquered the northern Kingdom of Israel and destroyed Samaria, exiling the 'Ten Lost Tribes.'

586 BCE

The Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II captured Jerusalem, destroyed the First Temple, and deported the Judean elite to Babylon.

530 BCE

The Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon, allowing exiled peoples, including the Jews, to return to their homelands.

516 BCE

Completion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem after the return from Babylonian exile.

332 BCE

Alexander the Great conquered the Near East, bringing Greek (Hellenistic) influence into Judea.

167 BCE

Beginning of the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV.

63 BCE

Pompey the Great of Rome captured Jerusalem, bringing Judea under Roman influence.

70 CE

The Romans under Titus destroyed the Second Temple during the Great Revolt.

1948 CE

Founding of the Modern State of Israel, following the UN Partition Plan and British withdrawal.