AP Psych - Learning (Kannappel)

3.7-3.9

learning

the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

habituates

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation; as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together; may involve two stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (operant conditioning).

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response.

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing a consequence.

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli.

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

unconditioned response (UR)

an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (such as food).

unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response.

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

acquisition

in classical conditioning, the initial stage of linking a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus. Often Weaker.

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, when a response is no longer reinforced.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of a weakened conditioned response.

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which a behavior is more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.

law of effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

operant chamber

a chamber (Skinner box) containing a bar or key an animal can manipulate to obtain a reinforcer, with devices that record responses.

reinforcement

any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

shaping

procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior.

discriminative stimulus

a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting a pleasurable stimulus.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing an unpleasant stimulus.

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer (secondary reinforcer).

reinforcement schedule

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

continuous reinforcement schedule

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

partial reinforcement schedule

reinforcing a response only part of the time; slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement behavior after a set number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

provide reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

reinforce a response after a fixed time period

variable-interval schedule

reinforce the first response after varying time intervals

punishment

an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

insight learning

solving problems through sudden realization rather than trial and error.

observational learning

learning by observing others (social learning).

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

mirror neurons

neurons that may fire when performing certain actions or observing another doing so, enabling imitation and empathy.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior.

antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, harmful behavior.

aversive conditioning

treatment involving repeated pairings of a stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus.

taste aversion

classical conditioning where a previously desirable or neutral food becomes repugnant due to association with illness.

successive approximations

small behavioral steps toward a goal; the process used in shaping.

positive punishment

administration of an aversive stimulus.

negative punishment

removal of a pleasant or rewarding stimulus.

escape learning

behavior that removes an unpleasant stimulus after it begins (e.g., leaving when a fire alarm goes off).

avoidance learning

behavior that prevents an unpleasant stimulus before it occurs (e.g., escaping before a fire starts).

Albert Bandura

psychologist who demonstrated observational learning with the Bobo doll experiment, showing that behavior is learned through observation and imitation.