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Hypothesis

A proposed explanation or prediction that can be tested through experimentation or observation.

Isotope

Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons, resulting in different atomic masses.

Geothermal gradient

The rate at which temperature increases with depth in the Earth's crust.

Scientific law

A statement that describes a natural phenomenon and is supported by extensive experimental evidence.

Covalent bond

A chemical bond formed when two atoms share electrons.

Silicate tetrahedron

A fundamental building block of silicate minerals, consisting of one silicon atom bonded to four oxygen atoms.

Scientific theory

A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world that is based on a body of evidence.

Ionic bond

A chemical bond formed between two ions of opposite charges.

Igneous rock

Rock formed from the solidification of molten material (magma or lava).

Catastrophism

The belief that Earth's geological features are primarily the result of sudden, violent events.

Metallic bond

A chemical bond formed by the attraction between metal atoms and the delocalized electrons.

Metamorphic rock

Rock that has undergone changes in texture, mineralogy, or chemical composition due to high temperature and pressure.

Principle of Uniformitarianism

the same natural laws and processes that operate in our present-day scientific observations have always operated in the universe in the past and apply everywhere in the universe

Sedimentary rock

Rock formed from the accumulation and lithification of sediments.

Atom

The basic unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus (containing protons and neutrons) and electrons orbiting around it.

Rock cycle

The continuous process of formation, destruction, and reformation of rocks on Earth's surface.

Lithosphere

The rigid outer layer of the Earth, consisting of the crust and uppermost part of the mantle.

Valence electron

An electron in the outermost shell of an atom that is involved in chemical bonding.

Lava

Molten rock that reaches the Earth's surface during a volcanic eruption.

Asthenosphere

The partially molten, ductile layer of the Earth's mantle beneath the lithosphere.

Cation

A positively charged ion.

Magma

Molten rock beneath the Earth's surface.

Geochronology

The study of the age of rocks and geological events.

Anion

A negatively charged ion.

Intrusive igneous rock

Igneous rock that forms from the solidification of magma beneath the Earth's surface.

Seismology

The study of earthquakes and seismic waves.

Radius ratio

The ratio of the radii of two ions in an ionic compound, which determines the coordination number and crystal structure.

Extrusive igneous rock

Igneous rock that forms from the solidification of lava on the Earth's surface.

Topography

The arrangement of the natural and artificial physical features of an area.

Bravais lattices

The 14 possible three-dimensional arrangements of points in a crystal lattice.

Plutonic rock

Another term for intrusive igneous rock, referring to its association with plutons.

Mid-ocean ridge

Underwater mountain range formed by plate tectonics where new oceanic crust is created.

Unit cell

The smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice.

Volcanic rock

Rock formed from the solidification of lava on the Earth's surface.

Deep-ocean trench

A long, narrow, and steep depression in the ocean floor, usually associated with subduction zones.

Crystal lattice

The regular arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a crystalline solid.

Decompression melting

The melting of rock due to a decrease in pressure as it rises towards the Earth's surface.

Subduction zone

A region where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another plate into the Earth's mantle.

Polymorph

Different forms of the same substance with different crystal structures.

Heat transfer

The movement of thermal energy from one object or substance to another.

Geotherm

The temperature distribution within the Earth.

Nucleation

The initial formation of a solid phase from a liquid or gas phase.