psych attitudes and stereotypes

Stereotype

A fixed, over-generalized belief about a particular group or class of people.

Social categorization

The process by which we classify people into groups, often leading to prejudiced attitudes.

Positive stereotypes

Generalizations that attribute favorable characteristics to a group, such as judges being seen as 'sober as a judge'.

Negative stereotypes

Generalizations that attribute unfavorable characteristics to a group, often more common than positive stereotypes.

Racial stereotypes

Stereotypes that exist of different races, cultures, or ethnic groups.

Katz and Braly study (1933)

A study that investigated the stereotypical attitudes of Americans towards different races using a questionnaire.

Questionnaire method

A research method used in the Katz and Braly study where students selected traits they thought were typical of various ethnic groups.

In-groups

Groups that individuals identify with, often leading to favoritism.

Out-groups

Groups that individuals do not identify with, often leading to prejudice.

Prejudiced attitudes

Negative beliefs or feelings towards a group based on stereotypes.

Generalizations

Assumptions made about individuals based on stereotypes.

Ethnic group

A group of people who share a common cultural background.

Cultural group

A group of people who share common cultural practices and beliefs.

Fixed belief

An unchanging and rigid idea about a group of people.

Simplification of social world

The process of using stereotypes to reduce cognitive load when meeting new people.

Ethnic stereotypes

Widespread beliefs shared by members of a particular social group regarding the characteristics of different ethnic groups.

Katz and Braly studies

Research conducted in the 1930s that examined ethnic stereotypes and their prevalence.

Ecological validity

The extent to which research findings can be generalized to real-world settings.

Demand characteristics

Situations in which participants alter their behavior because they perceive what the experiment is about.

Social desirability

The tendency of participants to respond in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others, potentially leading to dishonesty.

Stereotype threat

A situation where an individual fears confirming a negative stereotype about their social group.

Spotlight anxiety

Emotional distress caused by the fear of confirming a stereotype, which can undermine performance.

Steele and Aronson (1995) experiment

A study comparing the performance of African American and White college students under stereotype threat and non-threat conditions.

Stereotype threat condition

A scenario where participants are told their test performance indicates their intellectual abilities.

Non-threat condition

A scenario where participants are informed that the test is merely a problem-solving exercise.

Shih, Pittinsky, and Ambady (1999) study

Research showing that Asian women reminded of their Asian identity performed better on a math test than those reminded of their female identity.

Intellectual abilities

The cognitive capacities that are often unfairly judged based on ethnic stereotypes.

Performance equalization

The phenomenon where performance levels of different groups become similar under non-threatening conditions.

Strategies to Overcome Stereotypes

Increasing awareness and understanding through education, engaging in critical thinking, fostering empathy, seeking counter-stereotypical information, promoting positive intergroup contact, and advocating for inclusive policies.

Influence of Stereotypes on Behavior

Stereotypes can unconsciously shape perceptions, attitudes, and actions towards individuals, impacting decision-making, interactions, and leading to unfair treatment.

Impact of Stereotypes on Intergroup Relations

Stereotypes can create divisions, promote an 'us vs. them' mentality, fuel prejudice, and lead to misunderstandings and hostility between groups.

Role of Socialization in Stereotype Formation

Socialization exposes individuals to cultural influences that shape perceptions of different groups, perpetuating stereotypes through family, peers, media, and education.

Vicious Cycle of Stereotypes

Stereotypes can perpetuate negative intergroup perceptions, leading to ongoing misunderstandings and conflicts.

Promoting Inclusivity

Engaging in constructive conversations and challenging biases to work towards a more equitable society.

Stereotype Susceptibility

The phenomenon where an individual's performance is affected by the awareness of stereotypes related to their social identity.

Educational Institutions and Stereotypes

Schools and universities play a role in transmitting stereotypes through social norms and direct teachings.

Media Influence on Stereotypes

Media representations can shape public perceptions and reinforce stereotypes about various social categories.

Peer Influence on Stereotypes

Peers can contribute to the formation and reinforcement of stereotypes through social interactions and group dynamics.

Family Influence on Stereotypes

Family beliefs and teachings can instill stereotypes in individuals from a young age.

Critical Thinking Against Stereotypes

Engaging in critical thinking helps individuals question and challenge their assumptions about different groups.

Empathy in Stereotype Reduction

Fostering empathy can help individuals understand and relate to experiences of others, reducing stereotypes.

Counter-Stereotypical Information

Actively seeking information that contradicts existing stereotypes to promote a more nuanced understanding of different groups.

Positive Intergroup Contact

Encouraging interactions between different groups to reduce prejudice and improve relations.

Inclusive Policies

Advocating for policies that promote equal representation and inclusivity in various sectors.

Fairness and Equality

The importance of being aware of stereotypes to promote fairness and equality in treatment and opportunities.

Social Norms and Stereotypes

Social norms can dictate the acceptance of certain stereotypes within a culture, influencing individual beliefs.

Observation in Stereotype Learning

Individuals learn stereotypes through observing behaviors and attitudes of others in their environment.

prejudice

an unfavourable attitude towards a group of people

discrimination

prejudice expressed through behaviour

negative attitude towards a group

is not always necessarily prejudice.

ageism

prejudice against elderly people includes negative beliefs about elderly people.

Cognitive component

Assumptions are made about a group of people or a person.

Affective component

Feelings are either friendly or hostile towards a group of people based on the assumption.

Behavioural component

Behaviour towards a group of people is influenced by the assumption.

Sexism

Only men can lift heavy objects.

Disability

People with a mental illness are unreliable.

prejudice and discrimination

the most obvious examples are based on gender, race, ethnicity, age, sexual preference, physical or intellectual disability or mental illness.

education and legislation

much has been done to try to reduce these prejudices.

laws in Australia

prevent discrimination, but some prejudice can be difficult to detect.

Reluctance to help

Reluctance to help other groups improve their position in society by passively or actively declining to assist their efforts.

Tokenism

Publicly giving trivial assistance to a minority group in order to avoid accusations of prejudice and discrimination.

Reverse discrimination

Publicly being prejudiced in favour of a minority group in order to deflect social accusation of prejudice and discrimination.

Effects of prejudice

Victims of prejudice may suffer a range of effects that include physical, psychological and social disadvantage, low self-esteem, limited ambition, and physical and verbal abuse.

Low self-esteem

Crude acts of prejudice on a regular basis can damage self-esteem (e.g., insults, denial of equality, violence).

Disadvantage/failure

Being denied access to resources in society that are necessary for success is more likely to lead to failure (e.g., education, health, housing, employment).

Self-fulfilling prophecies

Expectations and assumptions about group members will influence interaction with members of that group and eventually change their behaviour so that it is in keeping with the original expectations and assumptions.

Violence and genocide

Overt acts of prejudice can include physical harm (e.g., apartheid in South Africa, segregation in the United States and, in some cases, deliberate acts of extermination such as the Holocaust in the Second World War).

Discrimination (example)

Employing one woman in a predominantly male organisation.

LaPiere's study

Richard LaPiere (1934) found that people who expressed prejudice had not actually behaved in a prejudicial way when he dined with two Chinese friends at 184 restaurants.

Survey results

Six months after LaPiere's study, approximately 50 percent of restaurateurs returned the survey, and of these, 90 percent said they would not serve Chinese patrons.

Contradictory attitudes

Numerous studies have found that people express attitudes that contradict their behaviour.

Company policy on employment

Deliberately favouring a minority group by making it company policy to employ a percentage of minority group members, which can lead to discriminatory treatment once employed.

inter-group contact

Interactions between the holder of the stereotype and the target of the stereotype.

sustained contact

Prolonged and involved cooperative activity or interaction.

prejudice

A negative emotional attitude held towards members of a specific social group.

multiculturalism

A concept that can reduce racism by increasing inter-group contact.

stereotyping

A mixture of negative thoughts, stereotypes, feelings of fear, envy or hostility, and actions of discrimination based on race.

racism

A mixture of negative thoughts, stereotypes, feelings of fear, envy or hostility, and actions of discrimination based on race.

superordinate goals

Goals that require the cooperation of multiple groups to achieve.

mutual interdependence

A situation where different groups need each other to achieve their goals.

equality (equal-contact status)

A condition where different ethnic, racial and cultural groups have equal status in interactions.

ageist stereotypes

Preconceived notions about older individuals that can lead to discrimination.

cognitive component of an attitude

The belief aspect of an attitude that can be positively impacted by inter-group contact.

Australian Administrative Appeals Tribunal

An organization committed to creating a working environment that values and utilizes contributions from diverse backgrounds.

negative emotional attitude

An emotional response that is unfavorable towards a specific social group.

prolonged cooperative activity

Extended periods of working together towards a shared goal.

informal attitude

An attitude that is based on stereotypes rather than informed understanding.

political power group

A large group of aged people that holds significant influence in political matters.

mental illness

A condition that aged people are more likely to suffer from compared to younger individuals.

loneliness in aged people

A common experience where aged individuals are generally alone and lonely.

workplace diversity

The inclusion of individuals from various backgrounds in a work environment.

positive attitudes

More favorable perceptions that can replace stereotypes through sustained inter-group contact.

shared goals

Common objectives that can help reduce prejudice when pursued collaboratively.

effective work performance

The ability of aged individuals to work as effectively as younger people.

ANZACs

Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, formed during World War I with the superordinate goal to defeat the enemy.

Jigsaw classrooms

An educational approach where each child is given a piece of information needed to complete a project, promoting cooperation over competition.

Cooperation

Working together towards a common goal, which can help reduce conflict and prejudice.

Competition

A situation where groups or individuals strive against each other, which can exacerbate hostilities.

Group membership perception

The way individuals perceive themselves as members of a larger group, influenced by shared goals.

AFL football team

An example of mutual interdependence where players of different races and ages must work together to win a game.