politics socialism

Name the socialist key thinkers:

Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Rosa Luxemburg, Beatrice Webb, Anthony Crosland, Anthony Giddens

How did Socialism originate?

Grew out of the Enlightenment period.

What did early socialists envision?

Utopian thinkers such as Robert Owen offered a vision of a perfect society and a practical response to capitalism and industry, involving common ownership and co-operative communities.

Why were Marx and Engels critical of liberalism?

They believed liberalism was inadequate to address the effects of capitalism, which it partly enabled through support for private property and laissez-faire economics.

View of human nature - Optimistic

Socialists believe humans are capable of building a better society and should not accept fate or fear the future.

Quote from Webb about the optimistic view of human nature

“There is no excuse for depressive inaction. There is no cause for listless despondency. A better tomorrow is conceivable, achievable, and probable.”

Utopian socialism

Early socialism based on a perfect vision of human life. Marx criticised it for lacking a practical method to achieve socialism.

Fraternity and co-operation

Humans should live harmoniously, viewing others as comrades rather than rivals.

View of human nature - Fraternal

Humans are naturally generous and co-operative; society should reflect that.

Quote from Luxemburg on a critique of capitalism

“Our instinct is not to win but to share … and should we be fortunate enough to be on the winning side, our ultimate instinct is to share the fruits of victory with others.”

Giddens’ view on fraternal nature in capitalism

High earners could be persuaded to help the less fortunate through higher taxes.

View of human nature - Rational

Humans can act reasonably and collectively, making sensible decisions.

View of human nature - Communal

Humans seek community over individualism and independence.

Communal view - Webb quote

“We are not lone wolves … we forever seek out the company of the pack.”

Luxemburg’s view on solidarity

Solidarity among similar groups creates well-being and drives social change.

Communal view - Marx

Communism would involve voluntary communities meeting everyone’s needs.

View of human nature - Malleable

Human nature is not fixed and can be improved through socialist reform.

How has the malleable idea been used in current UK politics?

Inspired the idea to be “tough on the causes of crime,” focusing on social conditions rather than individual blame.

2 main questions on human nature for socialists

What contaminates human nature? How can it be improved?

View of society - Existential

Society shapes human identity and potential. Traditional societies can damage individuals.

Quote from Crosland on the existential nature of society

“We cannot separate who we are from the sort of society we have. Our perspectives, our prospects, our very personalities, are affected by the society we are born into.”

View of society - Collectivist

Society functions best when individuals work collectively toward shared goals.

View of society - Class focused

There is a divide between manual and non-manual workers, owners and the owned.

How does the class focus help socialists to work for a fairer society?

By understanding inequality of opportunity between social classes.

View of society - Egalitarian

Formal equality is meaningless without reducing inequality of wealth and power.

Quote from Webb on an egalitarian society

“The humble should be made mighty, and the mightier made humbler.”

Class

Defines lifestyle, prospects, and political attitude.

Social justice

Legal equality must be accompanied by access to healthcare, education, and fair wages.

View of the economy - Fundamental

Political change must be tied to radical economic reform; socialism depends on a reformed economy.

View of the economy - Redistributive

Wealth and resources must be redistributed to reduce class gaps.

View of the economy - Ambivalent about capitalism

Skepticism over whether equality can exist within capitalism.

View of the economy (Capitalism) - Fundamentalist socialist view

Capitalism is incompatible with socialism due to its inherent inequalities.

View of the economy (Capitalism) - Revisionist socialist view

Capitalism can provide wealth which socialist policies can redistribute.

Quote from Crosland on capitalism

“It is difficult to redistribute wealth if there is no wealth to redistribute … and to ensure wealth, we need the engine of private enterprise.”

Fundamentalist socialism

Belief that socialism requires the abolition of capitalism.

View of the economy - Interventionist

Rejects laissez-faire; supports government regulation and planning.

Policies that likely all socialists would have agreed with

Equal Pay Act 1970, Minimum Wage 1998, Employment Relations Act 1999.

View of the state - Rejection of anarchism

Most socialists support a strong state, even if some believe it may eventually ‘wither away’.

View of the state - Rejection of ‘medieval’ states

Rejects monarchy, theocracy, and aristocracy. Supports redistribution of political and economic power.

View of the state - An enlarged state

Modern states should be extensive; libertarian minimal states are rejected.

View of the state - Disagreements with an enlarged state

Disagreement over whether the state should own the economy (Webb vs Crosland).

Features of statist collectivism

Progressive taxation, greater public spending, universal public services.

Revolutionary socialism - what is it?

Calls for quick and complete overhaul of political and economic systems.

Revolutionary socialist thinkers

Marx, Engels, Luxemburg

Evolutionary socialism - what is it?

Believes socialism can be achieved gradually within the current system.

Evolutionary socialist thinkers

Webb, Crosland, Giddens

Revolutionary socialism - Marxism

Marx and Engels’ critique of capitalism and advocacy for revolution.

Marx and Engels - Books

The Communist Manifesto (1848), Das Kapital (1867)

Marx and Engels - Arguments regarding capitalism

Capitalism fosters selfishness and false consciousness.

Marx and Engels - Social class

Two main classes - proletariat and bourgeoisie. Capitalism exploits the proletariat.

Marx and Engels - view on ‘surplus value’

The excess profit over cost creates resentment and eventual revolution.

Marx and Engels - Politically neutral state?

No. The state serves the economic ruling class.

Marx and Engels - Revolution

Essential and inevitable. A new state would arise, then wither into communism.

Surplus value

Difference between production cost and sale price—retained by owners, not workers.

False consciousness

Workers have distorted beliefs that mask their exploitation.

Marx and Engels - Inevitability of revolution

Capitalism cannot be reformed—must be overthrown.

Could revolution occur in countries without developed capitalism?

Marx - No; Lenin and Luxemburg - Yes.

Vanguardism simple definition

The most aware workers should lead the revolution.

4 crucial tasks of the Vanguard

Plan the revolution, re-educate the people, establish post-revolution leadership, enforce democratic centralism.

Why did Lenin argue for a one party state?

Internal debate represented the masses; further dissent would threaten revolution.

Luxemburg’s view on capitalism

In Reform or Revolution (1900), she aligned with Marx in criticising capitalism.

How Luxemburg argued socialism would come about

Through spontaneous revolution, not vanguard planning.

How would revolution come spontaneously?

Through class consciousness built via workplace struggles and mass strikes.

Luxemburg on the state after revolution

Favoured a democratic state with elections and debate, not dictatorship.

Luxemburg’s view on the pre-revolution state

Elections help build class consciousness, accelerating revolution.

How did evolutionary socialism challenge Marxism?

It argued that socialism could occur through peaceful reform.

What is Webb most known for?

Democratic socialism and ‘inevitability of gradualism’.

Webb’s view on what the state should provide for the poor

“Sufficient nourishment… living wage… treatment when sick… secure livelihood when disabled or aged.”

Social democracy - core principle

Socialism through state reform, not revolution.

What did Bernstein observe?

Working class had improved under capitalism by the late 19th century.

What did Bernstein argue based on his observations?

Capitalism could improve lives under socialist governance.

Crosland’s relationship to Bernstein

Agreed with him.

Crosland’s view on public/common ownership

It’s a means to an end, not an end in itself.

What was the true objective of socialism for Crosland?

Equality.

Crosland’s view on the economy

Capitalism had changed; now allowed for growth and full employment.

What could constant growth achieve according to Crosland?

Welfare expansion and reduction in inequality.

Crosland’s view on society

Society is more complex than Marx believed; class structure has changed.

New classes according to Crosland

Managers and technocrats.

Crosland’s view on what kind of economy socialism needs

A mixed economy, combining private and public elements.

When, and by who, did Crosland believe the ideal economy was created?

Labour governments, 1945–51.

Crosland’s view of future socialism through the economy

More public spending and services, not ownership.

Crosland’s view on education

Comprehensive state education would erode class divisions.

Crosland’s views on the new managerial class

They manage without owning and are neither proletariat nor bourgeoisie.

Overlaps between Third Way and Social Democracy

Non-revolutionary, use capitalism for equality, more public spending, Clause IV seen as outdated.

Core beliefs of Giddens

Concerned with capitalism’s impact on community and fraternity.

When did Giddens argue capitalism worked best?

When social cohesion is strong.

What is Triangulation?

Mix of social democracy and New Right ideas.

Third Way - Remixed economy

Embraces globalised capitalism to fund social policies.

Cultural equality - Third Way

Recognises modern diversity; promotes racial, gender, and sexual equality.

Communitarianism

Cultural equality laws aim to restore community and unity.

Marx and Engels - Human Nature

Originally altruistic, now corrupted by capitalism and false consciousness.

Marx and Engels - The State

A capitalist tool; must be destroyed and replaced by a socialist state.

Marx and Engels - Society

Defined by class conflict; communism will end this struggle.

Marx and Engels - Economy

Capitalism is inefficient and must be replaced by collective ownership.

Luxemburg - Human Nature

Still capable of fraternity and altruism under capitalism.

Luxemburg - The state

Should be destroyed, but replaced with a democratic, open state.

Luxemburg - Society

Exploitative, but working-class subcultures offer hope.

Luxemburg - Economy

Capitalism is resilient; needs determination and unity to be replaced.

Webb - Human Nature

Needs gradual reform, not violent revolution.

Webb - The State

Could evolve into a socialist tool via democracy.