Anatomy and Physiology Final Review Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards for Anatomy and Physiology final exam review, covering key terms and definitions from lecture notes.

Superior (cranial)

Position above or higher than another part of the body.

Inferior (caudal)

Position below or lower than another part of the body.

Proximal

Position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment.

Distal

Position in a limb farther from the point of attachment.

Medial

The middle or direction toward the middle of the body.

Lateral

The side or direction toward the side of the body.

Anterior (ventral)

Front or direction toward the front of the body.

Posterior (dorsal)

Back or direction toward the back of the body.

Superficial

Position closer to the surface of the body.

Deep

Position farther from the surface of the body.

Sagittal plane

Divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left sides.

Frontal plane

Divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) and posterior (rear) portion.

Transverse plane

Divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions.

Negative Feedback

Regulatory mechanism that works to counteract any deviation from the body's normal state, bringing the system back to its set point, and aims to maintain stability and restore equilibrium.

Positive Feedback

Amplifies a process, pushing the system away from its equilibrium state, often leading to dramatic responses in the body (e.g., giving birth).

Intracellular

Everything within a cell's membrane.

Extracellular

Everything outside the cell's membrane.

Epithelial tissue

Located in body coverings, body linings, and glandular tissue; functions in protection, absorption, filtration, and secretion.

Simple epithelia

Functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration; very thin, not suited for protection.

Simple squamous epithelium

Single layer of flat cells, usually forms membranes, lines air sacs of the lungs, forms walls of capillaries, and forms serous membranes (serosa) that line and cover organs in the ventral cavity.

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Common in glands and their ducts, forms walls of kidney tubules, covers the surface of the ovaries, and functions in secretion and absorption (ciliated types propel mucus or reproductive cells).

Simple columnar epithelium

Single layer of tall cells, goblet cells secrete mucus, locations lining of the digestive tract from stomach to anus, mucous membranes (mucosae) line body cavities opening to the exterior, and function in secretion and absorption (ciliated types propel mucus or reproductive cells).

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

All cells rest on a basement membrane; single layer but some cells are shorter than others, giving a false (pseudo-) impression of stratification; location: respiratory tract.

Stratified epithelia

Most common stratified epithelium, named for cells present at the free (apical) surface, which are squamous; functions as a protective covering where friction is common; locations lining the skin (outer portions), mouth, and esophagus.

Stratified cuboidal epithelium

Two layers of cuboidal cells; functions in protection.

Stratified columnar epithelium

Surface cells are columnar, and cells underneath vary in size and shape; functions in protection; rare in the human body, found mainly in ducts of large glands.

Transitional epithelium

Composed of modified stratified squamous epithelium; shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching; functions in stretching and the ability to return to normal shape; location lining of urinary system organs.

Connective tissue

Found everywhere in the body to connect body parts; functions protection, support, binding.

Extracellular matrix

Nonliving material that surrounds living cells; consists of a ground substance (mostly water with adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules) and fibers (collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers).

Bone (osseous tissue)

Composed of osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in lacunae (cavities); hard matrix of calcium salts; large number of collagen fibers; functions to protect and support the body.

Cartilage

Less hard and more flexible than bone; found in only a few places in the body; chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major cell type; types hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic.

Hyaline cartilage

Locations: trachea, ends of long bones, ribs, fetal skeleton, growth plates.

Fibrocartilage

Location: vertebral disks.

Elastic cartilage

Location: external ear.

Dense connective tissue

Main matrix element is collagen fiber; fibroblasts are cells that make fibers; locations tendons (attach skeletal muscle to bone), ligaments (attach bone to bone at joints), dermis (lower layers of skin).

Loose connective tissue

Softer, have more cells and fewer fibers than other connective tissues (except blood); types areolar, adipose, reticular.

Blood (vascular tissue)

Blood cells surrounded by a fluid matrix known as blood plasma; soluble fibers are visible only during clotting; functions as the transport vehicle for the cardiovascular system, carrying nutrients, wastes, and respiratory gases.

Skeletal muscle tissue

Packaged by connective tissue sheets into skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton and pull on bones or skin; voluntary; produces gross body movements or facial movements; characteristics striations, multi-nucleate, long cylindrical shape.

Cardiac muscle tissue

Involuntarily controlled, found only in the heart, pumps blood through blood vessels; characteristics striations, one nucleus per cell, short branching cells.

Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue

Involuntarily controlled, found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach, uterus, and blood vessels; peristalsis (a wavelike activity) is common; characteristics no visible striations, one nucleus per cell, spindle-shaped cells.

Nervous tissue

Function is to receive and conduct electrochemical impulses to and from body parts; irritability, conductivity; composed of neurons and nerve support cells; support cells called neuroglia, insulate, protect and support neurons.

Mitosis

The division of a cell's nucleus.

Melanin

Pigment produced by melanocytes; color ranges from yellow to brown to black; accumulates in the membrane; amount produced depends upon genetics and exposure to sunlight.

Keratin

Fibrous protein forming the main structural constituent of hair.

Jaundice

Yellow cast indicating a liver disorder; the yellow color is due to excessive amounts of bilirubin.

Hemoglobin

Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries; oxygen content determines the extent of the red coloring.

First-degree burns

Superficial burns; only epidermis is damaged; skin is red and swollen.

Second-degree burns

Partial-thickness burn; epidermis and superficial part of dermis are damaged; skin is red, painful, and blistered.

Third-degree burns

Full-thickness burn; destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area is painless; requires skin grafts as regeneration is not possible; burned area is blanched, grey-white, or black.

Fourth-degree burns

Full-thickness burn; extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, tendons); appears dry and leathery; requires surgery and may require amputation.

Long bones

Cylindrical bones that are longer than they are wide (e.g., humerus, ulna, tibia, fibula).

Short bones

Cube-shaped bones approximately equal in length, width, and thickness (e.g., carpals, tarsals, patella).

Hemoglobin

Iron-bearing protein; binds oxygen; each molecule can bind 4 oxygen molecules.

Anemia

A decrease in the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood, due to lower than normal number of RBCs, bleeding abnormal or deficient hemoglobin content in the RBCs.

Polycythemia

Disorder resulting from excessive or abnormal increases of RBCs due to bone marrow cancer, polycythemia vera, or life at higher altitudes (secondary polycythemia).

Leukemia

Bone marrow becomes cancerous; numerous immature WBCs are produced.

Leukocytosis

Abnormally high WBC count, generally indicates an infection.

Thrombocytopenia

Insufficient number of circulating platelets; arises from any condition that suppresses the bone marrow; even normal movements can cause bleeding from small blood vessels that require platelets for clotting; evidenced by petechiae (small purplish blotches on the skin).

Hematopoiesis

Process of blood cell formation in red bone marrow.

Hemostasis

Process of stopping the bleeding that results from a break in a blood vessel; involves 3 steps 1) Vascular spasms, 2) Platelet plug formation, and 3) Coagulation.

Vascular spasms

Immediate response to blood vessel injury vasoconstriction causes blood vessels to spasm and blood vessels shrink causing less blood loss.

Platelet plug formation

Collagen fibers are exposed by a break in a blood vessel; platelets become sticky and cling to fibers; anchored platelets release chemicals to attract more platelets; platelets pile up to form a plug.

Coagulation

Injured tissues release tissue factor that triggers a clotting cascade forming a meshwork to make a clot; fibrin forms a mesh that traps red blood cells and platelets, forming the clot.

SA node (sinoatrial node)

Located in the right atrium; serves as the heart's pacemaker.

AV node (atrioventricular node)

Located at the junction of the atria and ventricles; acts as gatekeeper between the atria and ventricles ensuring the electrical impulses from the atria are transmitted to the ventricles at the right time and with appropriate delay.

Apex

Bottom; is directed toward the left hip and rests on the diaphragm.

Base

Top; points towards the right shoulder.

Endocardium

Innermost layer of the heart; lines hollow chambers of the heart.

Myocardium

Thickest layer of the heart; it is a cardiac muscle that contracts.

Pericardium

Outermost layer of the heart which consists of two additional layers fibrous pericardium outer layers and serous pericardium.

Layers of serous pericardium

Visceral pericardium closer to the heart visceral means organ also know as epicardium. Parietal pericardium outside layer of the fibrous pericardium

Visceral pericardium

Closer to the heart (aka epicardium).

Parietal pericardium

Outside layer of the fibrous pericardium.

Atria

Right and left receiving chambers; blood enters under low pressure.

Ventricles

Right and left discharging chambers; thick-walled pumps of the heart; during contractions, blood is propelled into circulation.

Arteries

Tube-shaped blood vessels that transport oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body blood away from the heart.

Veins

Blood vessels located throughout your body that collect oxygen poor blood and return it to your heart.

Pulmonary circulation

Right side of the heart; takes deoxygenated blood from the body and sends it to the lungs.

Systemic circulation

Left side of the heart; receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and sends it to the rest of the body; has thicker walls because it pumps blood to the body through the systemic circuit.

Lubb - Dupp

Sounds, lubb Longer louder caused by valaves closing, dupp short sharp caused by semilunar closing.

Bradycardia

Slow heart rate (less than 60 beats per minute).

Tachycardia

Rapid heart rate (over 100 beats per minute).

Stroke volume

Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one contraction (each heartbeat); about 70 milliliters of blood is pumped out of the left ventricle with each heartbeat.

Cardiac output

Amount of blood pumped by each side (ventricle) of the heart in one minute.

Superior vena cava

Drains the head and arms.

Inferior vena cava

Drains the lower body.

Conchae

Projections from the lateral walls of the nasal cavity that increase surface area, increase air turbulence within the nasal cavity, and increase trapping of inhaled particles.

Pharynx

Muscular passageway from the nasal cavity to larynx (aka throat).

Epiglottis

Routes food into the posterior tube (the esophagus); a flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue which is depressed during swallowing to cover the opening of the windpipe.

Larynx

True vocal cords; vibrate with expelled air; allow us to speak.

Glottis

Space between vocal folds; includes the vocal cords and the opening between the vocal cords.

Trachea

Windpipe; transports are.

Bronchi

Formed by division of the trachea, the right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter than the left.

Lungs

Occupy entire thoracic cavity (except for the central mediastinum), serosa covers the outside surface of the lungs (pulmonary pleura covers lung surface, parietal pleura lines walls of thoracic cavity).

Alveoli

Portion of the lungs where gases diffuse; sites of oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.

Pulmonary ventilation

moving air into and out of the lungs (breathing)

External respiration

Gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli.

Respiratory gas transport

Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the bloodstream.

Internal respiration

Gas exchange between blood and tissue cells in systemic capillaries.

Inspiration

Flow of air into lungs (inhalation).