Final Exam Study Guide for Western Civilization

Final Exam Format

80 Multiple choice (.75 pts each), 3 short answer questions (5 pts each), 1 essay question (25 pts.)

Chapters covered

Chapters 16, 18, 21-23, 24, 27-28, 30, and/or class work (lectures/activities)

Importance of the printing press

Allowed ideas and information to spread quickly and widely, revolutionizing communication, education, and access to knowledge.

Inventor of the printing press

Johannes Gutenberg in 1440

Luther's main beliefs

Salvation by faith alone, The Bible is the ultimate authority, All believers are equal

Significance of Luther's 95 Theses

Challenged the Catholic Church's practices and sparked the Protestant Reformation.

Diet of Worms

Involved Martin Luther, Emperor Charles V, Church officials and German princes; outcome was that Martin Luther refused to recant his teachings.

Edict of Worms

Declared Martin Luther an outlaw and heretic, banning his writings, and making it illegal to support or protect him.

Calvin's beliefs

Predestination, the absolute authority of the Bible, a strict, disciplined life.

Reason for Henry VIII's break from the Catholic Church

The Pope refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation

Through the Counter-Reformation, which included the Council of Trent, the formation of the Jesuits, and increased use of the inquisition and censorship.

Edict of Nantes

Provided religious tolerance for Huguenots in France.

Treaty of Westphalia

It ended the Thirty Years' War, redrew political boundaries in Europe, and established the principle of state sovereignty.

Causes of the Thirty Years' War

Religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire, political struggles for power among European states, and resistance against the Habsburg rulers' attempts to strengthen their control over German territories.

Effects of the Thirty Years' War

Massive destruction and population loss in Central Europe, the Treaty of Westphalia, which ended the war and established state sovereignty, and the decline of the Holy Roman Empire's influence and the rise of France as a major European power.

Capitalism

An economic system where private individuals or businesses own and control property and trade, aiming to make profits in a free market with limited government interference.

Impact of Capitalism on the Dutch

The Dutch prospered under capitalism by becoming major global traders and financiers, building a powerful maritime empire, and establishing the Amsterdam Stock Exchange, which helped fuel economic growth and innovation in the 17th century.

Mercantilism

An economic theory where a country aims to increase its wealth and power by controlling trade, exporting more than it imports, and accumulating precious metals like gold and silver.

Impact of Mercantilism on the Spanish

The Spanish were impacted by mercantilism by exploiting their American colonies for gold, silver, and resources to increase their wealth, but reliance on these riches eventually led to inflation, economic decline, and neglect of domestic industries.

Elizabethan Religious Settlement

A solution by Elizabeth to religious and financial problems in England, creating a moderate Protestant Church of England that balanced Catholic and Protestant practices to reduce conflict.

Philip II of Spain's challenge to Elizabeth

He attempted to overthrow her and restore Catholicism in England, most famously launching the Spanish Armada.

Charles I's actions against Parliament

He upset Parliament and the Puritans by ruling without Parliament for long periods, imposing heavy taxes without consent, enforcing strict Anglican religious practices, and trying to control the church.

Oliver Cromwell

A military and political leader who led the Parliamentary forces against King Charles I during the English Civil War.

Charles I's fate

He was executed by beheading.

James II's actions against Parliament

He openly practiced Catholicism, appointed Catholics to high government and military positions, and tried to bypass Parliament's authority.

Glorious Revolution

The bloodless overthrow of King James II of England, when Parliament invited William and Mary to take the throne.

English Bill of Rights

Guaranteed parliamentary supremacy, regular elections, freedom of speech within Parliament, the right to petition the king, and protections against cruel and unusual punishment and excessive bail.

Absolutism

A political system where a ruler holds total and unrestricted power over the government and its people.

Importance of Versailles to Louis' reign

Versailles was significant for its role in demonstrating the power and grandeur of Louis XIV's absolute monarchy.

Peter the Great's accomplishments

Modernizing and westernizing Russia's government, military, and society; Building a strong navy; Expanding Russian territory; Founding the city of St. Petersburg.

Geocentric theory

The belief that Earth is the center of the universe.

Heliocentric theory

The idea that the Sun is the center of the solar system.

Scientific method

Knowledge should be based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning.

Laws of motion and gravity

Formulated principles that describe the motion of objects and the force of gravity.

Empiricism

The theory that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience.

John Locke

Natural rights (life, liberty, property), government by consent, right to overthrow unjust rulers.

Thomas Hobbes

People are naturally selfish; they supported absolute monarchy to maintain order.

Voltaire

Advocated freedom of speech and religion; criticized the Church and monarchy.

Montesquieu

Separation of powers and checks and balances in government.

Rousseau

Social contract theory; believed society corrupts human goodness.

Denis Diderot

Editor of the Encyclopédie to spread Enlightenment ideas.

René Descartes

Promoted reason and doubt; 'I think, therefore I am.'

Adam Smith

Advocated free-market economics and capitalism (Wealth of Nations).

Isaac Newton

Formulated laws of motion and gravity; inspired Enlightenment rationalism.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Early advocate for women's rights and education.

Salons

Social gatherings, often hosted by upper-class women, where Enlightenment thinkers met to discuss philosophy, politics, and science.

Important Enlightenment ideas

Reason, liberty, equality, natural rights, social contracts, secularism, and progress.

Effects of the Enlightenment

Revolutions (American, French), democratic reforms, a decline of absolute monarchy, and expanded rights.

Stages of a revolution

Incubation - underlying problems build; Symptomatic - protests and unrest begin; Crisis - violent overthrow or radical phase; Recovery - a new system forms and stabilizes.

Long-term causes of the French Revolution

Social inequality (Three Estates), Enlightenment ideas, absolute monarchy, and debt.

Immediate causes of the French Revolution

Food shortages, high bread prices, weak leadership (Louis XVI), Estates-General crisis.

National Assembly

Formed to represent the Third Estate and challenge the Old Regime.

Tennis Court Oath

A pledge made by members of the National Assembly to not disband until a new constitution was established.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

A fundamental document of the French Revolution that outlined individual and collective rights.

The Bastille

A fortress in Paris stormed by revolutionaries, symbolizing the uprising against tyranny.

Women's March on Versailles

A protest by women demanding bread and the return of the royal family to Paris.

Radicals

Political factions, including Jacobins and Robespierre, who took control during the revolution.

Reign of Terror

A period during the French Revolution characterized by mass executions of perceived enemies.

Guillotine

A device used for carrying out executions by beheading during the French Revolution.

The Committee of Public Safety

A governing body during the French Revolution that assumed dictatorial powers.

Significance of the French Revolution

It spread democratic ideas, challenged the monarchy, and inspired future revolutions.

Napoleon's rise to power

Staged a coup in 1799 due to the weakness of the Directory, offering order and reform.

Napoleon's downfall

Caused by the failed invasion of Russia, the Continental System, and defeat at Waterloo after 100 Days.

Napoleonic Code

Legal reforms introduced by Napoleon that emphasized equality and better governance.

Congress of Vienna

A conference in 1815 aimed at restoring monarchies and maintaining balance of power in Europe.

Enclosure Movement

Wealthy landowners fenced off common land, forcing small farmers to move to cities.

Agricultural Revolution

Innovations like crop rotation, the seed drill, and selective breeding that increased food production.

Connection to Industrial Revolution

More food led to population growth, and displaced farmers became factory workers.

Location of the Industrial Revolution

Began in Britain in the late 1700s.

Reasons for Industrial Revolution in Britain

Natural resources (coal, iron), stable government, banking system, large labor force, and access to global markets.

Positive impacts of the Industrial Revolution

Labor unions, labor laws, mass production, rise of the middle class, and technological innovations.

Urbanization

Massive migration to cities for factory jobs, leading to overcrowding and poor living conditions.

Class tensions from the Industrial Revolution

Poor working conditions for the working class contrasted with wealth accumulation by the middle/upper classes.

Socialism

An economic theory advocating for government regulation or ownership of industries for public good.

Communism (Marx & Engels)

A theory predicting a proletariat revolution to establish a classless society with no private property.

Economic

Resources and markets

Political

National prestige

Ideological

Social Darwinism, "civilizing missions"

Negative Effects

Exploitation of people and resources, Cultural destruction, Artificial borders, long-term conflict, Racism justified by Social Darwinism (belief in the superiority of Europeans)

Nationalism

Contributed to unification by uniting people in Germany and Italy; led to rivalries causing arms races, alliances, and conflicts over territory.

Realpolitik

Politics based on power and practicality, not ideology.

Bismarck's Strategy

Included 'Blood and Iron' speech, Seven Weeks' War (vs. Austria), Franco-Prussian War, crowned Kaiser Wilhelm I emperor in 1871.

Mazzini

Sparked nationalist sentiment through the Young Italy movement.

Cavour

Prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia; allied with France to fight Austria.

Garibaldi

Led the Red Shirts to conquer southern Italy.

Victor Emmanuel II

Became the first king of unified Italy in 1861.

Kaiser Wilhelm II

Pursued an aggressive German foreign policy and expanded the navy.

Balance of Power

Rival alliances formed (Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente) leading to rising tensions.

Rising Tensions

Nationalism, militarism, imperialism, and entangled alliances created a volatile environment leading to WWI.

Long-Term Causes of World War I

Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, Nationalism.

Immediate Cause of World War I

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (June 28, 1914) by a Serbian nationalist.

Triple Entente

Allied Powers: France, Russia, Britain (later joined by Italy in 1915, and the U.S. in 1917).

Triple Alliance

Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy (switched sides), later joined by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.

Schlieffen Plan

Germany's strategy to avoid a two-front war by invading France quickly through Belgium.

Verdun (1916)

Longest battle of WWI symbolizing French resistance with heavy casualties (700,000+) and minimal land gained.

Somme (1916)

British and French offensive with over 1 million casualties; one of the bloodiest battles ever.

Gallipoli (1915-16)

Failed Allied attempt to open a supply line to Russia via the Dardanelles, boosting Turkish nationalism.

Machine Guns

Increased firepower; made charges deadly; led to trench warfare.

Poison Gas

First used by the Germans; caused blindness, burns, and death.

Tanks

Introduced by Britain; helped break through trenches, but were limited early on.