Henry VIII & Wolsey (1509-29)

Henry's rise to the thrown, his government, the rise of Wolsey, and his domestic and foreign policies, and his eventual downfall

What was Henry's character?

Deeply religious Roman Catholic. Big ego, athletic, cultured.
He believed in the Divine Right of Kings.

What was the significance of the wool trade

• This was a source of wealth for gentry and nobility who owned large flocks of sheep.

• Wool was exported, in particular to the Netherlands. This increased the wealth of merchants in port cities like London and Bristol.

• Exports increased the wealth of the king and the crown as they levied a tax on each sack of wool exported.

• Landowners enclosed land to graze their flocks, reducing the common land available to ordinary people.

What was the significance of the cloth trade

• Most cloth was woven in Yorkshire, the south- west and the south-east of England.

• The industry brought wealth to these areas, particularly areas that could also benefit from closeness to the London markets.

• The cloth trade was run by merchants who organised themselves into guilds. This enabled them to control the quality of fabrics produced and keep prices high.

• The cloth was exported to Europe, especially the Netherlands and Belgium, and England became the major European cloth producer.

• By 1540, up to 83% of cloth in Europe came from England.

What was the importance of London

• London was England’s biggest city with a population of 60 000. Other large towns included Norwich, Exeter, York and Coventry.

• London was a growing centre of trade, especially weaving and the wool trade.

• It was also where the king and the royal court were frequently based.

• Merchants from London traded with Europe including the Netherlands, Spain and Russia

What was the Privy Chamber

• Made up of his closest friends

• Domestic and political responsibilities

• Head was Groom of the Stool, who wiped his bottom- people wanted this job

What was the Royal Council

• Advisors to the King

• Mainly nobility and the church

• Guided on policy and state matters

What was Court

• Servants, advisors, nobility, friends

• Known as courtiers

• Lived in or near the King’s palace

• Showed off his power and wealth

• Entertained and advised

What was the Royal Household

• Nobles, servants, who provided food, clothing and spiritual guidance

• King held audiences here

• Advised

What was Parliament

• House of Lords (including bishops) and House of Commons

• Pass laws for the king- mainly just new taxes

What were Justices of the Peace

Nobility who kept law and order in different areas of the country

What was the kingdom Henry inherited

• There were no rival contenders to the throne when Henry’s father died.

• This made the throne secure. Henry was the second son but his elder brother, Arthur, had died in 1502 and Henry became heir to the throne

• Henry VII had taxed the nobility heavily and the government coffers were full, but this meant he was unpopular with noblemen who now welcomed a new and less experienced monarch.

• The country was a Catholic country, which acknowledged the authority of the pope. It was the pope, and not the king, who controlled the Church and the Church was extremely powerful

In what way was Henry a ‘Renaissance Prince’

• Henry styled himself as a Renaissance man, picking up on the revival of culture based on the ideas of ancient Greece and Rome that were sweeping through Europe.

• Henry had many talents and skills, and also had a keen intellect.

• He was a strong athlete.

• He hunted and practised archery, wrestling and jousting

• He was a musician. He sang, played many instruments and composed.

• He spoke French, Spanish and Latin.

• He was a good dancer.

What were Henry’s views on sovereignty and reign

Henry believed:

• He had been appointed by God – this was known as the divine right of king

• People had a duty to obey him

• The monarchy and the court were at the centre of life in England

• In what he thought and said, and it was difficult to convince him otherwise – he was very stubborn

What was Henry’s personal style of government

• Henry used the Royal Council and the Privy Chamber to help him make decisions.

• Henry increasingly made use of one personal adviser or chief minister. Up until 1529 this was Cardinal Wolsey, from 1529 to 1540 it was Thomas Cromwell

• Henry delegated (gave) power as routine tasks bored him – increasing the power of his key advisers, such as Wolsey and Cromwell.

What were Henry’s strengths

• Popular:

  • He was young and different from his father, who was disliked by noblemen and merchants for imposing high taxes.

  • He was handsome and looked like a king.

• Strong

  • He had a team of experienced advisers around him who helped him to rule the country.

  • England was stable – there was an established system of government and little threat of rebellion or civil war.

  • His wife, Catherine of Aragon, gave Henry strong connections to Spain – a growing European power.

• Rich

  • England was rich and the Crown was not in debt.

What were Henry’s weaknesses

• Naïve: aged only 18, he had little experience of government.

• His vision of kingship, based on heroic legends, was simplistic and required him to spend large amounts of money on expensive wars and on his court.

• Disinterested: he had little interest in day-to-day government and was happy to delegate power to others. This allowed his ministers to accumulate large amounts of power.

• Risk taker: he took part in dangerous sports, such as jousting, which were risky when there was no male successor to the throne.

• Egotistical and overconfident: he would not heed advice, leading to costly mistakes.

What were Henry’s aims

• To create a government where the king decided policy and his ministers carried it out.

• To achieve victory in battles abroad and to become a major force in European affairs.

• To win back lands from France.

• To create a dazzling royal court through dress, architecture and entertainment, comparable with the courts in France and Spain.

• To enhance his prestige by attracting great men to his court, including scholars and artists.

• To be an effective monarch, governing well, maintaining law and order, being committed to the Church and producing a (male) heir who would reduce the risk of civil war on his death

What was Wolsey's background?

Son of a butcher (called the butcher's boy by his enemies)
Went to Oxford - aged 15
Church as the only way someone of low birth could get on.

What was Wolsey’s character

• Not a member of the nobility

• Extremely intelligent

• Very ambitious

• Charming and persuasive, which enabled him to build working relationships with the king and rulers of other countries

• Willing to carry out the king’s wishes

• Ruthless with anyone who threatened him or the king’s government

• Known as Alter Rex (second king) because of his great power and influence.

What job did Wolsey get in 1509?

Royal Almoner - gave him a seat on the Royal Council

What job did Wolsey get in 1514

Became Bishop of Lincoln and Archbishop of York.

What job did Wolsey get in 1515

Became Lord Chancellor and Henry’s chief minister, and a cardinal.

What job did Wolsey get in 1518

Became Papal Legate (pope’s representative), becoming the most powerful and senior churchman in the country.

Why was Wolsey able to rise to power?

• Henry did not involve himself in day-to-day government. This increased Wolsey’s power as he was left to carry out the boring but important tasks that Henry wished to avoid.

• Wolsey’s appointment as Royal Almoner in 1509 made him a member of the Royal Council giving him access to the king. This gave him opportunities to exert influence over Henry and to dominate government by 1515

• Henry disliked many of his father’s advisers who he saw as too cautious and unpopular. This removed potential rivals and eased Wolsey’s path to power.

• The war with France in 1512 enabled Wolsey to prove his worth to Henry by organising a well- equipped and well-supplied army by 1513. Wolsey demonstrated skills that Henry later relied on, increasing his power and influence

• Wolsey’s persuasive personality and his ability to flatter enabled him to exert influence over the king, while making him an effective negotiator on Henry’s behalf. His ruthlessness and willingness to financially ruin his rivals deterred any challenges to his position.

• Went to Oxford at 15, gained a degree in 1498- showed he was qualified

• Religious background- became a priest, then bishop of Lincoln and archbishop of York- religion very important to Henry

What were Wolsey's domestic reforms

• Justice (Star Chamber)

• Finance (Subsidy Tax)

• Stopping Enclosures

• The Eltham Ordinances

• The failed Amicable Grant

What were Wolsey’s reforms to Justice

• As Lord Chancellor, Wolsey sought to create a fairer system of justice that ensured the rich (the merchants, gentry and nobility) were not above the law.

• To achieve this he:

  • strengthened the Star Chamber – a royal court that dispensed justice for the king

  • encouraged the poor to bring cases to court

  • increased the court’s work rate

  • supported the cases of the poor against the rich

  • oversaw cases himself

  • 12 cases a year to 120

  • Sent a well liked Earl to Prison

What were Wolsey’s reforms to Enclosures

• Enclosure involved using fences to divide land into fields that were often used to graze sheep, allowing landowners to make money through the wool trade.

• This reduced the land available to tenant farmers (farmers who rented land) and the poor who had less common land to graze their animals.

• Wolsey set up an inquiry in 1517 to investigate this practice and reduce its effect on ordinary people. His work resulted in 260 court cases being brought against landowners

• Wolsey’s policies achieved very little as enclosures continued to take place. The policy also angered many landowners, creating enemies for him at court

What were the Eltham Ordinances

• 1526

• To tackle the misspending and bad management of the palaces, Wolsey compiled a list of rules 79 chapters long. These included:

  • cutting spending on meals and servants

  • laying off sick or unneeded servants

  • reducing the amount of money paid to people for expenses such as food, fuel and lodgings

  • reducing the number of gentlemen in the Privy Chamber from 12 to six

• The Eltham Ordinances were largely unsuccessful, mainly because Wolsey lost interest in them once he had reduced the size of the Privy Council – his main aim

What were Wolsey’s financial reforms

• The subsidy – this was a tax on incomes (what people earned). This was a progressive tax; the more you earned the more you paid. More effective than direct taxation- raised £190,000 a year, compared with £90,000 from direct

• Crown Lands- Wolsey recovered Crown lands from the nobility increasing the income to the government. This raised £15 000 in 1515 alone.

• Forced loans – Wolsey forced major landowners to lend the government money in 1522 and then again in 1523.

• Generally worked, especially subsidy, still used today, but failed to keep up with KIng’s spending eventually

Why was the Amicable Grant introduced

• The King of France had been defeated by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1525.

• Henry wanted to take advantage of this by invading France and recovering lands lost by the Crown in the 15th century

• The Amicable Grant was to help pay for this invasion. It was a tax of a third on the property of priests and of a sixth on the property of ordinary people

Why was the Amicable Grant controversial

• Other taxes, including the subsidy, the fifteenth and the tenth had all been approved by parliament. The Amicable Grant had not been approved in this way and was being collected by Royal Decree.

• People only had 10 weeks to pay the tax. Many people resented this demand and could not afford to pay it. There was a risk that people would refuse to pay and the possibility of a rebellion against the king.

• ⅓ for priests, ⅙ for everyone else, on top of other taxes

What were the short term consequences of the Amicable Grant

• Many people refused to pay the tax, claiming that they had no money.

• In Lavenham, Suffolk, a full-scale rebellion broke out with 10,000 men gathering in the town expressing their loyalty to the king but demanding he be aware of their anger at having to pay the tax.

• On the arrival of the Duke of Norfolk and Duke of Suffolk, the rebels surrendered but were pardoned by the king.

• The tax was abandoned.

• Henry postponed the French campaign and made peace with France.

What were the long term consequences of the Amicable Grant

• Wolsey was humiliated and his reputation badly damaged.

• He, rather than the king, had to take responsibility for the tax and its failure.

• Wolsey was unable to raise any further taxes while he remained the king’s first minister.

• Henry began, perhaps for the first time, to doubt Wolsey’s judgement, beginning a process that would result in Wolsey’s fall from power.

• The position of Wolsey’s enemies in the royal court was strengthened. Wolsey’s introduction of the Eltham Ordinances was perhaps an attempt to reduce their influence over the king.

• The failure of the Amicable Grant demonstrated that there were limitations on the king’s power, as he could no longer raise taxes without the consent of parliament.

Why did the Amicable Grant fail?

Wolsey failed to ask Parliament.
It demanded ⅓ from priests. It demanded ⅙ from everyone else.
A revolt broke out in Suffolk.

What were Henry VIII and Wolsey's foreign policy aims?

• To create better relationships with both France and the Habsburg Empire. This would prevent England being diplomatically isolated and vulnerable.

• To play Europe’s two major powers (the Habsburg Empire and France) off against each other to England’s advantage- England’s position in Europe was helped by the rivalry between Charles V and Francis I. Charles V was a potential ally in any war with France, while Francis I would be an ally in any conflict with Charles V. If Charles and Francis made peace, then England would be diplomatically isolated and vulnerable

• To provide opportunities for Henry to gain military glory, enhancing his prestige, while making sure that wars did not become too expensive.

• To allow Henry to be seen to be a major peacemaker. This would enhance his prestige without the expense of long wars.

What was the Battle of the Spurs

1514- The Battle of the Spurs was the final battle in the first French war that ultimately gave victory to Henry. Technically a success, but only captured 2 small towns, and was too expensive for the limited land gained

What was the Treaty of London

• 1518- The Treaty of London was a diplomatic triumph for Wolsey as he initiated it.

• It promised universal peace by proposing that each state followed a non-aggressive foreign policy by not attacking each other.

• If one power did go to war, they would be at risk of other countries coming to the aid of the country being attacked.

• The treaty:

  • Was signed by 20 European leaders and the pope

  • Brought prestige to Henry

  • Placed Henry and Wolsey at the centre of European politics. This only prevented war for three years.

• Peace only lasted until 1521, when war between France and Spain broke out again

• Also in this period, Charles I of Spain also became the Holy Roman Emperor, completely changing European politics

What was the Field of the Cloth of Gold

• 1520 The ‘Field of the Cloth of Gold’ was one of a series of diplomatic meetings arranged by Wolsey.

• Francis I and Henry met near Calais. It was a splendid showcase for the two kings and an impressive display of English power and wealth, putting Henry at the centre of European diplomacy.

• Feasts, jousting, and an unplanned wrestling match between the 2 kings

• Nothing was decided or agreed at the meeting

What was the war with France 1522-25

• 1522–25- French war and alliance with Charles V failed because Wolsey’s support for Charles V against France, in the Treaty of Bruges 1521, was based on the idea that Charles would help him seize French territory and the French throne.

• This did not happen. Charles gave Henry little military support.

• After the Battle of Pavia, Charles ignored Henry’s suggestion that France be divided between England and the Holy Roman Empire with Henry getting the French throne.

• Instead, Charles released Francis from captivity. The war was unpopular, cost £430 000 and achieved little

What was the Treaty of More

• 1525

• Brought peace between previous enemy, France, and England

• Henry agreed to give up his claims to French land, in exchange for annual payments

What was the League of Cognac

• Set up in 1526 by Wolsey

• Created an alliance between France, Papal States, Florence, and Venice- England did not join

• Fought HRE in 1526, with little success

What was the Treaty of Westminster

• 1527

• Strengthens relations with France by allying against HRM, threatening armed intervention if Charles didn’t seek to improve relations with neighbouring states

• This was a mistake as it made an enemy out of Charles

• Charles invaded Rome and the smaller states in Italy in 1527, basically giving him control of the Pope- this meant that when Henry began to seek an annulment, the only person who could grant it to him, wouldn’t

• In 1528, England and France declared war on HRE, however England couldn't afford to send troops, making them seem weak

• In 1529, Charles defeated the French at the Battle of Landriano, cementing the power of HRE over Italian states, proving England’s weakness as an ally, and preventing the annulment from taking place

What was the Treaty of Cambrai

• 1529

• Francis I negotiated a peace deal with Charles V in the Treaty of Cambrai, only notifying Wolsey of the negotiations when it was too late.

• This was a snub to Wolsey and Henry and left them diplomatically isolated

What were Wolsey's foreign policy successes?

Treaty of London 1518 - Non aggression pact (but only lasts 3 years).
The Field of Cloth of Gold 1520 -Meets Francis (but no agreement)

Why did Henry want an annulment

• Love- he fell out of love with Catherine of Aragon and had now fallen in love with Anne Boleyn

• Power- he needed a male heir and Catherine was not providing him one- if he wished to continue the Tudor lineage, he needed to produce a son, to keep the crown secure

• Religion- he though that the reason why he couldn’t have children with Catherine of Aragon was because god had decided it- he had produced an illegitimate son with his mistress so he believed he couldnt be the problem- he used Leviticus to argue that god had intervened

In what ways was Henry and Catherine’s marriage successful

• Henry was a loving and affectionate husband

• Catherine was a popular queen due to her charitable work Catherine was supportive of Henry; she acted as regent when Henry was fighting the French between 1512 and 1514.

• She even dispatched an army to Scotland to defeat and kill James IV, sending Henry James' bloody shirt as a gift. It strengthened Henry’s relationship with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire.

• This improved England’s prospects in any war against France as it would have the support of Spain and would not be isolated in Europe

What were the problems with Catherine’s failure to provide a son

Catherine was pregnant at least six times between 1509 and 1520, but only one child, Princess Mary, survived. Catherine’s failure to provide Henry with a male heir was a growing concern to him because:

• It reflected badly on Henry’s manhood and reputation, and suggested that Henry was incapable of producing a male heir

• It threatened the succession as the absence of a male heir encouraged others from both inside and outside the kingdom to consider claiming the throne – this raised the prospect of invasion and civil war

• Catherine was six years older than Henry and by 1527 was 42 years old, making another pregnancy and a male heir unlikely

What did Catherine’s lack of son cause for Henry

• Henry blamed Catherine for not giving him a healthy son – he had had an illegitimate son by his mistress, Bessie Blount, so it couldn’t have been his fault.

• Henry had lost interest in Catherine and had turned his attentions to younger women, including Anne Boleyn.

• By marrying his dead brother’s wife (Catherine had briefly been married to Prince Arthur), Henry thought God was punishing him by not giving him a male heir, as in the Old Testament (Leviticus) it states: ‘If a man shall take his brother’s wife it is an impurity... they shall be childless.

• Catherine challenged this with Deuteronomy

Which bible verse made Henry think his marriage was cursed?

Leviticus - said you should not marry your brother's wife. If you do, you will have no children.

Which bible verse did Catherine use to defend her marriage to Henry?

Deuteronomy - duty to look after your brother's wife if he dies

Why did Wolsey fail to get the annulment

• Catherine of Aragon- used deutoronomy to argue against Leviticus and Henry’s religious argument. She was also very popular with the general public, so they were not happy. Her nephew was Charles V, who had control of the pope; she also had the support of Thomas More, an advisor to the king, and the bishop John Fisher

• Charles V- he was Catherine’s nephew, so went out of his way to prevent the annulment from happening- he also had control of the pope, the only person who could grant it, so could make him refuse to grant it

• Pope Clement VII- he said it was ok in the first place, so to got back on himself, and agree with Leviticus, would be contradicting god, as he is supposed to be the voice of god; he sent Cardinal Campeggio to mediate and come to a decision, but the pope told him not to come to a decision- he was also near the end of his life so couldn’t be pressured

Why did Wolsey fall from power

• Amicable Grant

• Reforms

• Foreign policy

• Boleyns

• Annulment

How did the amicable grant lead to Wolsey’s fall from power

• Wolsey’s decision to introduce the Amicable Grant tax in 1525 damaged his reputation as it led to a rebellion and the failure to collect the tax.

• Henry was forced to distance himself from Wolsey’s actions, undermining his power and influence over the king

How did Wolsey’s reforms lead to his fall from power

• Wolsey’s reforms to the justice system, his opposition to enclosure, his willingness to reclaim land held by the nobility for the Crown and his high-handed nature had made him many enemies at court.

• These people were more than happy to conspire with the Boleyns to undermine Wolsey

How did the Boleyns lead to Wolsey’s fall from power

• Henry’s infatuation with Anne Boleyn gave the Boleyn family, especially her father Thomas Boleyn and her brother, George, increasing influence at court.

• Wolsey’s failure to secure an annulment led them to plot against him by suggesting to Henry that Wolsey was siding with the pope and not interested in securing an annulment.

• Anne hated Wolsey and, together with her brother and other nobles who were unhappy with Wolsey, persuaded Henry to get rid of him.

How did Wolsey’s foreign policies lead to his downfall

• Wolsey’s failure to build an alliance against Charles V was frustrated by the Treaty of Cambrai, leaving England isolated and vulnerable in Europe.

• Henry was prepared to get rid of Wolsey because he no longer had confidence in his skills as a diplomat

How did Wolsey’s failure to gain the annulment lead to his downfall

• Henry needed a son to continue his lineage, very important

• The annulment was described as his great matter

• Wolsey’s failure to secure an annulment of Henry’s marriage to Catherine angered Henry.

• He became increasingly impatient with Wolsey and began to believe that he was working with the pope to prevent an annulment from happening

What was Wolsey charged with and why?

• In October 1529, Wolsey was stripped of most of his powers and possessions and exiled to York.

• In July 1530, Wolsey was summoned to London on charges of praemunire (working in the interests of the pope and not the king), but died on his way down to London to face trial

How did Wolsey’s fall impact court

• Wolsey had remained in power for so long because he was able to ensure that other courtiers had little influence over the king.

• However, Henry’s infatuation with Anne Boleyn ended this. It allowed a rival camp, the Boleyns, to emerge in court.

• The Boleyns were able to work with Wolsey’s other enemies to undermine his authority and influence over the king