Understanding Gospel Reading, Theology, and Biblical Texts

Reading horizontally

Comparing the Gospels with one another to see how each account relates to the others.

Reading vertically

Reading each Gospel on its own as an independent, self-contained literary work.

Purpose of ancient biography according to Plutarch

To present virtuous actions that move readers to admire and imitate the person's conduct.

"The Gospels are portraits or memories of Jesus, but they are not Jesus"

Each Gospel is a literary account of Jesus shaped by an author's aims; the account points to Jesus but is not identical with Jesus himself.

Pastor

A shepherd who uses personal gifts to build up the body of Christ.

Willimon's image for a pastor

The pastor is a priest or mediator who points people toward Christ, represents God to humanity, and represents humanity to God.

What should church life mirror according to Willimon?

Sunday worship; all pastoral activity should point toward encounters with the living Christ.

Lectio Divina

"Divine Reading," a prayerful way of reading Scripture that seeks communion with God.

Four steps of Lectio Divina

Read, meditate, pray or respond, and contemplate.

Read in Lectio Divina

Read the passage slowly and thoughtfully.

Meditate in Lectio Divina

Seek to encounter God through the passage rather than merely analyze it.

Pray or respond in Lectio Divina

Respond to God about the encounter experienced through the text.

Contemplate in Lectio Divina

Express silent love and seek union with God.

Holleman's six dimensions of being human

Social, physical, emotional, cognitive, volitional, and spiritual.

Creed

A statement of belief.

Why the Nicene Creed matters

First adopted in 325 CE and amended in 381 CE, it gives the classic Christian answer to who God is and is affirmed by Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and most Protestant churches.

What does the Trinity maintain about God?

God's equality, diversity, and unity.

Polytheism or tritheism

It treats the Father, Son, and Spirit as separate gods and neglects God's unity.

Modalism or Sabellianism

It treats the Father, Son, and Spirit as modes of one person and neglects God's diversity.

Arianism or subordinationism

It places the Son below the Father and neglects God's equality.

Roman infrastructure and the New Testament

Roman roads and waterways made early Christian mission work possible, but they also carried environmental and economic costs.

Herod the Great and the New Testament setting

His rule produced a beautiful temple in Jerusalem, but he and his descendants were also known for brutality and violence.

Roman religion and Jews or Christians

Rome often allowed local religions, but many Romans called Jews and Christians "atheists" because they refused to worship other gods.

Roman power and Jesus

Roman power is both mimicked and subverted in the life of Jesus.

Dynasty that won Jewish political independence during the Hellenistic Period

The Hasmonean dynasty, which arose from the Hasmonean or Maccabean Revolt.

Languages of the Bible

Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek.

Masoretic Text (MT)

A group of medieval Hebrew manuscripts that preserves a much earlier textual tradition; the Aleppo and Leningrad Codices are examples.

Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS)

Fragments of about 210-212 biblical scrolls found in eleven Qumran caves from 1947-1956; some Hebrew texts date to the third century BCE.

Septuagint (LXX)

An ancient Greek translation and collection of the Hebrew Scriptures dating roughly to the third and second centuries BCE.

Textual criticism

The comparison and analysis of biblical manuscripts to reconstruct the earliest form of a text and explain how textual variants arose.

First general principle of textual criticism

The shortest reading is usually earlier because scribes tended to add explanations.

Second general principle of textual criticism

The more difficult reading is usually earlier because scribes tended to fix troubling readings.

Third general principle of textual criticism

Prefer the reading that best explains how the other variants arose.

Common causes of textual variants

Added explanation, harmonization with another passage, intentional correction, and scribal mistakes.

Formal correspondence

A translation method that stays closer to the wording and grammatical form of the source language.

Dynamic equivalence

A translation method that aims to express the meaning of the source naturally in the reader's language.

Why can Bible translations differ?

They may use different translation methods, punctuation, or textual-critical decisions; every translation requires interpretation.

Canon

A normative list of material accepted as authoritative for faith and practice.

TaNaK

The Jewish Scriptures, named from Torah, Nevi'im, and Ketuvim.

Torah

"Instruction"; the first division of the TaNaK.

Nevi'im

"Prophets"; the second division of the TaNaK, including the Former and Latter Prophets.

Ketuvim

"Writings"; the third division of the TaNaK.

Septuagint and canon

The LXX arranges books as Pentateuch, Historical Books, Poetry or Wisdom, and Prophets, and it includes books and passages beyond the shared Hebrew Bible.

Deuterocanonical books

Books and passages found in the Septuagint that Catholic and Orthodox traditions receive as Scripture beyond the shared Hebrew Bible.

Apocryphal books

A common Protestant label for the additional Septuagint books that are not included in the Protestant Old Testament canon.

Muratorian Canon

Possibly the oldest known Christian canon list, from about 200 CE; it does not fully match today's New Testament.

Canon of Athanasius

A list from 367 CE and the earliest known canon list that matches the present New Testament.

Apostolicity as a New Testament canon criterion

A writing was connected to an apostle or preserved the apostles' message.

Rule of faith as a New Testament canon criterion

A writing agreed with the central beliefs taught by the church.

Widespread use as a New Testament canon criterion

A writing was broadly read and accepted among early Christian communities.

How did the New Testament canon form?

It developed through a long communal process rather than one decision at a single moment.