Studied by 7 people
method of tenacity
information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it.
method of intuition
information is accepted on the basis of a gut feeling
method of authority
a person relies on information or answers from an expert on the subject
method of faith
variant on method of authority - unquestioning trust in authority figure, Accept information from authority w/o doubt or challenge
rational method / rationalism
seeks answers by use of logical reasoning
premise statements
describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true
argument
set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield to a conclusion
empirical method
uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge
inductive reasoning
using a small set of specific observations as basis for forming a general statements about larger set possible observations
variables
characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals e.g. weather/ economy/ personal health - or - weight /height/personality between people
hypothesis
statement that describes a relationship between or among variable: A proposal not final answer
deductive reasoning
uses a general statement as basis for reaching a conclusion about specific
scientific method
method of acquiring knowledge. that uses observations to develop a hypothesis, then uses hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be empirically tested by making systematic observations. typically a cycle
Quantitative research
based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores
Qualitative research
based on making observations that are Summarized + interpreted in a narrative report.
participants
human individuals who take part in research
subjects
non-human individuals who take part in research
Impact Factor
measure of the frequency with which the average article in a journal has been cited in a particular year
research confederate
pretend to be a participant but part of the research team
In a true experiment…
the researcher must manipulate an independent variable while controlling all variables other than independent + dep. variables
active deception
commission
between groups design
Participation is randomly assigned to the study conditions
within groups design
Participation is exposed to the different levels of the independent variable
passive deception
omission
when using deception
the benefit must outweigh the risk
theory
summarizes and organizes observations + inferences.
provides tentative explanations for phenomena. + provides a basis for making predictions.
Scientific method step 1
posing a question
Scientific method step 2
Developing procedures to answer questions
Scientific method step 3
planning for + then making appropriate empirical observations
Scientific method step 4
rationally interpreting empirical observations
Scientific method step 5
using interpretations to predict other events
theory requirements
must be falsifiable
solid empirical base
parsimonious
Questions in Research
Form a statement that needs an answer
Identify general topic area
Look for relationships between variables
Common sources of research ideas
Scholarly literature
modify an existing study
discussion section at research report
personal interests / curiosities
casual observations.
practical problems / questions
behavioural theories
Hypothesis
a statement about relationships between variables
A hypothesis shows:
A relationship exists
A cause + effect explanation
Limitations fer relationship
Relationship depends an definition of variables
Mistakes in forming a hypothesis
Lack of interest
too easy or hard
too broad
stay with first idea
inadequate literature on topic
Basic Questions
aim to increase our scientific understanding of phenomena
Applied Questions
seeks to identify solutions to current problems
Basic Research
research studies intended to answer theoretical questions or rather knowledge simply for the sake of new knowledge.
Applied Research
intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems.
Primary source
firsthand report of observations or research results written by the individuals who actually conducted the research and made the observations
Secondary source
a description or summary of another person’s work. A secondary source is written by someone who did not participate in the research or observations being discussed.
Characteristics of a good hypothesis
Logical
Testable – all of the variables, events, and individuals can be defined and observed
Refutable – can be demonstrated to be false. Possible for the outcome to be different than the prediction
Positive
Theory
set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior.
Help organize and unify different observations of the behavior and its relationship with other variables.
Generates predictions about the behavior
Constructs
hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory
Operational Definition
a procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly.
specifies a measurement procedure (a set of operations) for measuring an external, observable behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and measurement of the hypothetical construct
Validity
the degree to which the measurement process measures the variable that it claims to measure
Face validity
Unscientific form of validity demonstrated when a measurement procedure superficially appears to measure what it claims to measure
Concurrent validity
demonstrated when scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from an established measure of the same variable
Predictive validity
o demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory
Construct validity
requires that the scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself. Construct validity is based on many research studies that use the same measurement procedure and grows gradually as each new study contributes to more evidence
Convergent validity
demonstrated by a strong relationship between the scores obtained from 2 or more different methods of measuring the same construct
Divergent validity
demonstrated by showing little or no relationship between the measurements of two different constructs
Reliability
stability or consistency of the measurement. If the same individuals are measured under the same conditions, a reliable measurement procedure produces identical (or nearly identical measurements.
Test-retest reliability
established by comparing the scores obtained from two successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores.
parallel forms of reliability
reliability measure when alternative versions of the measuring instrument are used for the two measurements
Inter-rater reliability
the degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors
Split-half reliability
obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a separate score for each half and the calculating the degree of consistency between the two scores for a group of participants
Ceiling effect
the clustering of scores at a high end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of increases in value
Floor effect
clustering of scores at the low end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of decreases in value
Experimenter bias
occurs when the measurements obtained in a study are influenced by the experimenters expectations or personal beliefs regarding the outcome of the study
Single-blind
when the researcher does not know the predicted outcome
Double-blind
both the researcher and the participants are unaware of the predicted outcome
Demand characteristics
refer to any of the potential cues or features of a study that (1) suggest to the participants what the purpose and hypothesis is and (2) influence the participants to respond or behave in a certain way
Reactivity
occurs when participants modify their natural behavior in response to the fact that they are participating in a research study or the knowledge that they are being measured
Laboratory
any setting that is obviously devoted to the discipline of science. It can be any room or any space that the subject or participant perceives as artificial.
Field
a place that the participant or subject perceives as a natural environment
Good subject role
participants that have identified the hypothesis of the study and are trying to produce responses that support the investigators hypothesis. (Not ideal for results)
Negativistic subject role
these participants have identified the hypothesis of the study and are trying to act contrary to the investigator’s hypothesis (not wanted)
Apprehensive subject role
these participants are overly concerned that their performance in the study will be used to evaluate their abilities or personal characteristics. Try to place themselves in a desirable light by responding in a socially desirable fashion instead of honestly. (Not ideal because results are not accurate)
Faithful subject role
these participants attempt to follow instructions to the letter and avoid acting on any suspicions they have about the purpose of the study. Two types of participants take on this role: those who want to help science and know they should not allow their suspicion to enter their responses, and those who are simply apathetic and did not give the study much though. (These are the ideal participants!)
Researcher have 2 basic categories of ethical responsibility:
Responsibility to the individual participant human or nonhuman (welfare and dignity)
Responsibility to the discipline of science (accurate and honest)
Research ethics
concerns the responsibility of researchers to be honest and respectful to all individuals who are affected by their research studies or their reports of the studies' results
Ethical principles dictate:
Measurements and techniques
Selection of participants
Strategies used in certain populations and behaviors
Design used in certain populations and behaviors
How studies are carried out
How data is analyzed
How results are reported
informed consent
requires the investigator to provide all available information about a study so that an individual can make a rational, informed decision to participate in the study.
deception
occurs when a researcher purposefully withholds information or misleads participants with regard to information about a study.
debriefing
a post-experimental explanation of the purpose of a study that is given to a participant, especially if deception was used.
Confidentiality
the practice of keeping strictly secret and private the information or measurements obtained from an individual during a research study.
Anonymity
the practice of ensuring that an individual's name is not directly associated with the information or measurements obtained from that individual
The Institutional Review Board (IRB)
a committee that examines all proposed research with respect to its treatment of human participants. Approval must be obtained before any research is conducted with human participants.
The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
a committee that examines all proposed research with respect to its treatment of nonhuman subjects. Approval must be obtained prior to conducting any research with nonhuman subjects.
Fraud
the explicit effort of a researcher to falsify or misrepresent data
Replication
repetition of a research study using the same basic procedures used in the original. Either the replication supports the original study by duplicating the original results, or it casts doubt on the original study by demonstrating that the original result is not easily repeated.
Plagiarism
the unethical representation of someone else’s ideas or words as one’s own
APA ethics code
No Harm
privacy and confidentiality
institutional approval
competence
record keeping
informed consent
dipensing informed consent only when research will create no harm or where otherwise permitted
No or small inducements
Little to no deception
Debriefing
BENEFIT MUST OUTWEIGH HARM
The Belmont Report identifies these:
Principle of Respect for persons
Principle of Benefience
Principle of Justice
Milgram’s obedience
concluded people obey either out of fear or out of a desire to appear cooperative
was not ethical
Nuremberg code
a set of ethical research principles for human experimentation created by the court in U.S. v Brandt
Response set bias
several factors that can lead someone to respond falsely or inaccurately to a question
Social Desirability Bias
Participant trieds to give a socially acceptable response
Aquiencence bias
participant tends to agree with all statements
Problems with measuring variables:
response set bias
Inconsistent procedures when taking and recording measures
Francis Galton
Cousin of Darwin
studied individual differences
believed intellegence is inborn
Coined “eugenics”
Eugenics
believed that they could perfect human beings and eliminate so-called social ills through genetics and heredity
encouraged successful people to bear children together, discourage ‘inferior’ people from bearing children
became forced sterilization worldwide
formally ended 1972
indigenous women coerced until 2017
Assumptions about Ethical Codes
Research benefits society
People are willing to participate
Respects and protects participants
APA Guidelines
No harm
Informed consent
Deception may be allowed
Confidentiality
Benefits both participant and researcher
Lead researcher responsibility
in charge of decision making
must be competent
responsible for team behaviour
Research Ethics Commitee Responsibilities
must agree the research is minimal risk
looks for: risk/benefit, equitable participant selection, documented informed consent, use of data, privacy and confidentiality
Informed consent is:
verbal assent in children
consent from adults/parents
not about age
capacity to make an informed decision
Note
Flashcard