IRA checkride prep

PPL Privileges

-May act as PIC and carry passengers

-Can be reimbursed for operational costs when working with non-profit organizations or doing search and rescue operations.

PPL Limitations

-must pay pro rata share of expenses

-may not fly persons or property for hire

PPL currency

-flight review by an authorized instructor and endorsement if not received a rating or certification within the preceding 24 calendar months

- to carry passengers: 3 takeoffs and landings within the preceding 90 days of the flight

Personal Documents to fly

Medical, PPL license with IRA rating, government issued photo ID

IFR currency

Within 6 months

-6HITS. 6 Instrument approaches, Holding procedures and tasks, intercept and tracking courses through the use of navigational sources.

-done under actual/simulated instrument (view limiting device), or flight training device/simulator under the same category.

What is the 6 month grace period?

66HITS may be reestablished with a safety pilot. CFII in IMC actual, CFI or PPL pilot if in simulated.

What is an IPC?

Instrument Proficiency Check

-done by DPE, CFII, or ASI

Pilot Qualifications, Weather Information, Instrument Cockpit Check, ATC Clearances, Compliance with Procedures, Holding Procedures, Basic Instrument Maneuvers, Unusual Attitude Recovery, Use of Nav System, Tracking and Intercept, Precision Approach, Nonprecision Approach, Missed Approach, Circling, Landing from Approach

(circling and landing procedures must be done in actual plane)

VFR Airworthiness

DIE

Documents

SPARROW: supplemental docs, placards, registration, radio license, operating handbook, weight and balance.

Inspections:

AAVIATES: Annual, Airworthiness Docs, VOR accuracy, Altimeter, Transponder, ELT, Static

Equipment:

ATOMATOFLAMES: Airspeed Indicator, Tachometer, Oil pressure gauge, Manifold pressure gauge, Altimeter, temperature gauge, oil temperature gauge, fuel gauge, landing gear indicators, anticollision lights, magnetic direction finder, ELT, safety gear/belts.

IFR airworthiness

GRABCARDD

generator/alternator, radios, altimeter, ball(slip skid), clock (analog/digital & hms &fixed into a/c), attitude indicator, rate of turn indicator, DME (or suitable RNAV AIM 1-2-3), directional gyro.

PART 830 incident vs. accident

Incident: any occurrence where an aircraft operation affects or could affect safety but does not meet the criteria for an accident.

accident: person suffers death, serious injury or a/c receives substantial damage.

PART 830 substantial damage & serious injury

substantial damage: damage that affects structural strength, performance, or flight characteristics requiring major repair and/or replacement.

serious injury: hospitalization for more than 48 hours within 7 days of the injury (broken bones - not fingers, nose, or burns affecting more than 5% of the body)

PART 830 When to report accidents?

A full report on board form 6120.1/2 must be filed within 10 days of the accident

Night Definitions

Nav lights: sunset to sunrise

Night time (logged): morning civil twilight to evening civil twilight

night landings: 1 hour before sunrise, to one hour after sunset

Gyroscopic instruments - Attitude Indicator

Operates off rigidity in space and suffers from precession.

Attitude indicator - operates on the principle of rigidity in space. Shows bank and pitch information.

Mounted to the horizontal plane.

Friction causes AI to move out of orientation, but pendulous veins are used to counter this.

Limits: bank: 100-110 & pitch: 60-70

gyroscopic instruments - pendulous veins

Air is vented on 4 sides of the gyro cover when aligned, and the gyro is vented equally. When out of alignment, free-hanging vanes will be covered while other vanes will be exposed resulting in the gyro returning to alignment.

gyroscopic instruments - heading indicator

Operates off rigidity in space and suffers from precession.

Heading indicator - operates on the principle of rigidity in space. vertically mounted gyro. Gyro moves freely about the vertical axis with the help of the vacuum system.

limits: bank: 85 degrees

6 pack: heading should be corrected every 15 minutes due to Earth's rotation.

Gyroscopic instruments - turn/slip indicator & rate of turn indicator

Operates off precession

turn/slip: mounted straight out parallel with the longitudinal axis of the a/c. Only sensitive to the rate of turn.

turning coordinator: gyro canted up approximately 30 degrees. Sensitive to both the rate of turn and the rate of roll.

Pitot Static System - Airspeed Indicator

ASI: measures dynamic pressure though the pitot tube and static port.

pitot tube: RAM air=total pressure (static & dynamic)(connected to the diaphragm)

static port: static pressure (connected to the casing)

static & static cancel each other out, and were left with dynamic to be read and digitized.

Pitot Static System - Altimeter

ALT: compares pressure outside to the pressure sealed inside an aneroid wafer, typically set to 29.92''Hg

Inside the casing:

high pressure->high density->decending=wafer condenses

low pressure->low density->climbing=wafer expands

KOLLSMAN WINDOW: Adjusts mechanical linkage to artificially condense or expand the wafer.

Pitot Static System - Vertical Speed Indicator

VSI: Using a diaphragm and a calibrated leak per the static port, this instrument displays rates/trends of descending/climbing feet per minute.

- static air goes immediately in & out of the diaphragm but has to wait a few seconds to go in & out of the casing (calibrated leak), creating a differential pressure which is read at the climbing/descending fpm.

-in a climb:

higher pressure in casing-> lower pressure in diaphragm & is being pushed out = condensing the diaphragm.

lower pressure in casing-> higher pressure in diaphragm & air flows into casing = expanding the diaphragm.

IAPs - PA

precision approaches: provide lateral and vertical guidance

- utilizes DA(MSL) or DH (AGL) as MAP

- FAF glideslope intercept

- ILS, GLS & PAR

- Meets ICAO Annex 10

- Ground-based

IAP's - APV

Approach with vertical guidance: provides lateral and vertical guidance.

- Does not meet ICAO Annex 10 due to APVs relying on satellite-based systems. Which are accurate but don't provide high-level redundancy by Annex 10 standards.

- FAF GS intercept

- Utilizes DA & DH as MAP

- LDA+ GS, LNAV/VNAV(WAAS or baro-aiding altimeter), LPV (needs WAAS), (+V) advisory vertical guidance add on.

IAP's - NPA

Non-precision approach: provides only lateral guidance

- utilizes MDA

- MAP is always charted (runway, timer, etc.)

- FAF is denoted by Maltese cross

- VOR, NDB, LOC (3-6 deg CRS width), LDA (non WAAS, GPS based, >3 deg offset runway) LNAV (non WAAS and GPS based), LP, ASR

A, B, C, D . . . approaches

circling approaches: created when:

1. runway is more than 30 degrees offset runway

2. >400fpnm decent from FAF to TCH

3. Runway not clearly defined AIM 2-3-3

when do we circle?

-winds/weather/only IAP

expanded circling minimums?

-denoted by negative C

-gets longer at higher altitudes because TAS gains at higher altitudes

X, Y, Z . . . approaches

has to be:

Same guidance system

same runway

Z has the lowest minimums

ASR and PAR

two different types of radar approaches:

ASR: provides azimuth (headings) and elevation (position in relation to GS)

PAR: provides azimuth (headings), decent advisory, and distance from MAP

ALL TURNS ARE TO BE MADE AT HALF STANDARD RATE

ILS categories

CAT I - DH 200' / RVR 2400' or 1800' (if TDZ & CL lights exist)

CAT II - DH 100'/ RVR 1200' -> AUTOLAND

CAT IIIa - DH <100' or no DH / RVR 750

CATIIIb - DH <50' or no DH / RVR 150-750

CATIIIc - DH N/A / 0/0 visibility

ILS components - Guidance

Localizer: lateral guidance

- sends two signals of 90Hz(left) and 150Hz(right)

- 3-6 degree CRS width & 700 ft wide across AER

-service volumes:

10nm -> 35deg on either side of the centerline

8nm -> 10deg on either side of the centerline

Glideslope: vertical guidance

- sends two signals of 90hz(top) and 150hz (bottom)

- 1.4 CRS width with 0.7 on either side of the centerline

- max service volume: 10nm 4500 ft to pick up

Location:

- typically: 250-650ft offset the centerline (usually to the left), and 750-1250 ft from AER

ILS Components - Visual

ALS: Approach Lighting System

- conversions found in TPP section I1

RVR: Runway Visual Range

- reported when visibility is less than 6000 RVR

- Uses scatterometers (radios) and/or transmissometers (lasers)

- scatterometers: send radio signals & measure how much signal they receive back.

- transmissometers: shoots lasers which act as light rays, water reflects the light, and reads the RVR value.

ILS Components - Range

DME: (GPS can be used in lieu of DME AIM 1-2-3)

Marker Beacons:

OM: 4-7nm from AER, is the NPA FAF, denoted in blue and - - - dashes.

MM: 3500' from AER, Cat 1 DH (on GS 200"), denoted in amber and . - . - dot/dashes.

IM: 200-1500' from AER, Cat 2 DH (on GS 100'), denoted in white and . . . dots.

Procedure Turn & speed restriction

-A maneuver that is prescribed when it is necessary to reverse direction to establish an aircraft on the approach course.

-less than 10nm from PT fix you need to be at or below 200kts

When do we not do a procedure turn?

SHARPTT

straight in, hold in lieu of PT, arc (DME), radar vectors, Pno PT on chart, teardrop entry, timed entry.

Types of procedure turns

45/180

80/260

racetrack

base turn

To descend further than the FAF to land you need . . .

1. normal maneuvers/normal decent rates

2. vis not less than prescribed then on approach

3. if you see approach lights when below MDA/DA/DH you can decend further

Red vs White approach lights

-White: You can descend to 100' above touchdown

-Red; you can descend further than 100' above touchdown but cannot land.

To descend further to land you need to see one of these things clearly . . .

-threshold itself , lights, and markings

-REIL

-VGSI (VASI, PAPI)

-touchdown zone itself, lights, and markings

-runway itself, lights, and markings

what is the weather condition to accept a LAHSO?

3sm and 1000 ft ceilings

VDP vs PUP

visual decent point: 3 deg glide down to the runway

-to calculate: HAT/300=distance from runway

pull up point: 6 degree glide down to the runway

-to calculate: HAT/600=distance from runway

Approach Categories

A = 90 or less

B = 91 to 120

C = 121 to 140

D = 141 to 165

E = 165 plus

Lost Coms - VMC vs IMC

VMC: continue in VMC land when practical

IMC: broken into 3 parts

- ROUTE: Assigned, Vectored, Expected

-ALTITUDE: min IFR altitude, expected, assigned (whichever is highest)

-LEAVING CLEARANCE LIMIT:

--place where an app starts & EFC exists: leave CL at EFC time and start approach (hold if early)

--place where an app starts & no EFC exists: Leave CL start approach and arrive at ETA

--NON IAF with EFC: leave at EFC & go to a place where an approach starts & start the approach

--NON IAF without EFC: leave CL upon crossing, go to a place where an approach starts, and start the approach

Circle to Land procedure

-Allows a pilot to shoot an IAP to one runway and land at another.

-reasons: airport restrictions, runway lengths, winds, and/or weather

-the pilot must have the runway of intended landing in sight at all times during the approach.

Contact vs Visual approach

Contact - must be requested, ATC cannot assign, airport vis of 1 mi, Clear of clouds, do not have to have airport in sight but ATC should have reasonable assurance that pilot will land VFR.

Visual - 1000ft and 3 mi vis, must have Airport or preceding aircraft in sight and maintain VFR clear of clouds to the airport. Can be requested or assigned by ATC

Autopilot - GARMIN GFC 700 AFCS - legal requirements

-preflight must be successfully completed prior to use of the autopilot, FD, or manual trim

-the pilot, seatbelt fastened, must occupy the left pilot seat during all AP operations

-AP must be off during t/o and landings

-max engagement speed: 150

-min engagement speed: 70

-electric trim max op speed: 163

-must be disengaged below 200 ft AGL during approach operations, and below 800ft AGL in all other operations.

-ILS approach using only AP/FD are limited to CAT1 approach only

-Use of AP is prohibited when audio panel is INOP

-Use of AP is prohibited when conducting missed app procedures

ATC Reporting Points

MARVELOUS VFR C500

Missed Approach

TAS changes +/- 10kts or 5%

Reaching a hold

VFR on top

ETA change +/- 3 min

Leaving the hold

OM inbound

Unforecasted weather

Safety of flight

Vacating an altitude

FAF inbound

Route or NAV failure

Compulsory reporting point

500fpm climb/decent is unable to be made

Alternates: NPA vs PA & WAAS vs NO WAAS

Legally Alternate is required with the 123 rule

1 hour before and after ETA: 2000 ft ceilings and 3 sm visibility

PA: 600ft ceilings 2sm visibility

NPA: 800ft ceilings 2sm visibility

WAAS: TSO 145/146, can be RNAV only, 800ft ceilings 2sm

NON WAAS: cannot be RNAV only, must have conventional approach

ADC and AHRS

Attitude Heading Reference System

-uses: accelerometers, magnetometer, tilt and rate sensors.

-displays on: attitude indicator, HSI, rate of turn indicator, slip skid

Air Data Computer

-uses: info from pitot tube, static port and OAT probe and digitilzes it

-displays on: ASI, altimeter, vertical speed indicator, OAT, TAS

Magnetic Compass and erros

Compass card floats on a needle with two magnets on either side and a counter weight on opposite side of north facing (for mag dip)

floats in keroscene or mineral spirits

Errors:

Variation

Deviation

Mag Dip

Ocillation

North/South errors (UNOS)

Acceleration/deceleration errors (ANDS)

Different Enroute Altitudes

-MEA: minimum enroute altitude: lowest published altitude between radio fixes that ensures navigational coverage and obstacle clearance.

-MOCA: Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude: lowest altitude in effect between fixes on VOR airways, meets obstacle clearance and ensures radio signal 22nm from VOR

-MRA: Minimum Reception Altitude: minimum altitude the nav signal can be received for the route and off course NAVAID facilities to determine a fix.

-MAA: Maximum Authorized Altitude: published altitude representing the maximum usable altitude

-OROCA: Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude: obstruction clearance w/1000ft buffer in non-mountainous and 2000ft in mountainous areas

Icing Blockages

-pitot hole blocked, drain hole and static open -> ASI-zero, VSI and ALT will remain normal

-pitot hole blocked, drain hole blocked, static open-> ASI acts as altimeter, VSI and ALT will act normal.

-pitot hole, drain hole, and static port blocked-> ASI, ALT will freeze while VSI will read zero.

-pitot hole open, drain hole closed, and static open-> erroneous ASI reading

-pitot and drain hole open, static port blocked-> ASI acts as reverse altimeter.

VFR weather minimums

A n/a

B 3 coc

C 3 152

D 3 152

E 3 152 <10k

E 5 111 >10k

G 1 COC D <1200

G 3 152 N

G 1 152 D >1200 <10k

G 3 152 N

G 5 111 >1200 >10K

DME and NDB how does it work?

DME: distance measuring equipment: UHF

-needs: DME receiver, ground receiver, and antenna.

-slant range (response and interrogation) is how DME calculates distance by response x time.

NDB: nondirectional beacon: LF-MF

-ground-based radio transmitter sends out equal strength signals in all directions.

-needs: loop and sense antenna and ADF instrument

Ceilings and visibility: VFR, MVFR, IFR and LIFR

VFR: >3000' AGL & >5sm

MVFR: 1000-3000' AGL & 3-5sm

IFR: 500-below 1000' AGL &/or <3sm-1sm

LIFR: below 500' AGL &/or <1sm

IFR Scanning Techniques & Scanning Errors

Attitude Instrument Flying

-Instrument cross check: scanning all equally

-Instrument Interpretation: understanding all potential errors

-Aircraft Control: technique controlling a/c based off the first two

Cross Checks: radial (g1000), rectangular, V-scan, T-scan.

Errors:

-fixation: tendency to stare at one instrument and negate others

-omission: leaving a particular instrument out of the scan.

-emphasis: checking on instrument more readily than the others.

VOR: how does it work? service volumes? errors? VOR checks?

Very High Omnidirectional Range

- based off unit and board, ground based

- sends out two signals: reference (goes out equal strength in all directions) and variable (goes out in a singular direction all around)

SERVICE VOLUMES

terminal: 25nm radius from 1000-12000'

low: 40nm radius from 1000-18000'

high: 40nm radius from 1000-14500' then 100nm radius from 14500-18000' then 130nm radius from 18000-45000' then 100nm 45000-60000'

Errors: LARC

-line of sight

-area of ambiguity

-reverse sensing

-cone of confusion

Checks: GADVB

ground +/- 4 deg

airborne +/- 6 deg

dual within 4

VOT +/- 4 (180 to 360 from)

Bench zero (maintenance)

Detonation vs preignition

both caused by a buildup of carbon

Detonation: explosion of fuel/air mixture

spikes: CHT, EGT, and causes rough-running engine

Preignition: explosion happens before the cylinder reaches top dead center in combustion.

spikes: CHT

low: EGT

also with a rough running engine

to fix: reduce power, increase airspeed, and enrich mixture.

Difference between climb rate vs climb gradient

-climb rate: feet per minute -> different for every aircraft (a cessna is going to have a significantly different climb rate than a boeing 737 due to groundspeed)

-climb gradient: feet per nautical mile -> all a/c fly the same minimum angle of climb regardless of GS

What is a SID? purpose? types? clearance?

Standard Instrument Departure

- relieves pilot and ATC workload and streamlines traffic

- obstacle clearance

Types:

- pilot nav: pilot flies designated route independently

- radar vectors: ATC provides pilot w/ radar vectors to follow departure route

- hybrid: combination of both

SIDS NEED CLEARANCE

climb via vs climb and maintain

climb via: follow SID/STAR procedures

climb and maintain: follow the altitude given and the speed requirements on the procedure unless told otherwise.

Ingredients to icing? types of icing?

-moisture and near freezing temps

-instrument icing: any icing on the pitot tube, static port, antennas, and/or probes.

-induction icing: the formation of ice in an aircraft's engine induction system, within the air intake or carburetor, which can restrict airflow and lead to engine power loss or even failure

-structural icing: any icing on the a/c structure that causes a significant loss of thrust/performance

types of structural icing

- Clear: larger supercooled droplets freeze over time and run back over the wing (0 to -10 deg Celsius) creating horns and conforming to the wing

- Rime: smaller supercooled droplets freeze instantaneously on impact (-15 to -20 degrees celcius) and create wedge shapes on the leading edge of the airfoil

- Mixed: various-sized droplets creating characteristics of both clear and rime (-10 to -15 deg celcius)

Icing Redundancies - C172S

-fuel additives: lower freezing temperatures of fuel

-cabin heat, windshield defrosters, pitot heat, alternate static source and alternate induction door

what is CFIT? contributing factors? solutions?

controlled flight into terrain

-unintentional collision w/ terrain w/ an airworthy aircraft and a qualified pilot in positive flight controls

-prevented by: making sure proficient, trusting instruments, and knowing where flying to and from

what is VCOA? when do we need to preform one?

vertical climb over airport

-needs to be done when the obstacle is beyond 3nm and cannot be cleared

-VCOAs need approval not clearance

what is an OIS? what happens if penetrated? what happens if not penetrated?

- a line drawn from the DER at a gradient of 152fpnm during a diverse departure assessment

- if nothing penetrates: standard 35ft by the DER, 200fpnm climb gradient, and no turns to be made below 400' AGL must be met

- if obstacle penetrates one or more will be created:

obstacle notes, non standard t/o minimums, diverse vector area, VCOA, ODP

what are IFR t/o minimums?

part 91: does not have any

part 121 & 135:

- 2 or less engines -> 1 sm vis

- more than 2 engines -> 1/2 sm vis

what is an ODP?

Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP)

- only provides obstruction clearance

-recommended not required

- does not require clearance by ATC

hypoxia and types

-Hypoxic: insufficient oxygen available to the organs and tissues (partial pressure at higher altiudes)

-Hypemic: blood is unable to take up and transport a sufficient amount of oxygen to cells in the body (carbon monoxide poisoning)

-Stagnant: oxygen-rich blood in the lungs is not moving to the tissues that need it due to poor circulation (excessive Gs)

-Histotoxic: inability of cells to effectively use oxygen to to toxins in the body (alcohol/drugs)

Scuba Diving Requirements

-Above 8000ft and decompression stop diving: 24 hours recommended

-Uncontrolled ascent and below 8000 ft: 12 hours recommended

-Or decompression sickness or the bends can occur

what are the oxygen requirements?

-From 12,500 to 14000 after 30 minutes, crew must have

-From 14000 to 15000, crew must have it on always

-Above 150000, provided to passengers and crew must have it

what are the spatial disorientation and illusions?

ICEFLAGGS

-Inversion: abrupt change from climb to straight and level feels as if tumbling backwards

-Coreallis: abrupt head movement in long turn can cause the pilot to be disoriented.

-Elevator: abrupt upward or downward acceleration or deceleration due to updraft or downdraft may feel like a climb/descent

-False horizon: sloping clouds/haze/smoke can create an obscure or false horizon may cause a pilot to line up with said false horizon.

-Leans: abrupt correction of banked attitude can create an illusion of going in the opposite direction

-Autokinesis: static light will appear to move when being stared at, at night.

-Graveyard spin: prolonged spin when corrected will feel like going into spin in the opposite direction, causing the pilot to put in the original control inputs and go back into original spin.

Graveyard spiral: prolonged descending turn will cause the pilot to pull up on the yoke, only tightening the spiral

Somotographic: rapid acceleration during takeoff can make the pilot feel like a nose-up attitude.

RNAV vs RNP

-RNAV provides area navigation, including general en-route navigation, SIDs, STARs, and RNAV approaches.

-RNP: Required Navigation Performance: essentially RNAV with onboard performance, monitoring, and alerting. Used in more precise operations. Requires a specific level of accuracy and continuous performance monitoring.

Max holding speeds

MHA-6000ft - 1min and 200 kts

6001-14000ft - 1min and 230 kts

14001-and above - 1.5 min and 265kts

why do we hold? types of holds? 5 T's?

-ATC delays, Traffic, weather, pilot request, and emergencies

-holding in leiu of procedure turn (solid bold line)

-arrival holding pattern (thin solid line)

-missed approach (dashed line)

-Turn, time, toggle/twist, throttle, talk

what is a STAR? purpose? how to fly?

-standard terminal arrival route

-starts at obstacle clearance and reduces ATC/PIC workload, streamlines traffic

-nearly identical to flying SID, except SID will only take you down to the airport terminal environment.

-RAIM is needed for a STAR when using a non WAAS GPS system

RNAV1 vs RNAV2

-RNAV1: used for departure procedures and STARs a/c must maintain a total system error of not more than 1nm for 95% of total flight time.

-RNAV2: enroute operations unless otherwise stated ex: T-Routes and Q-Routes. A/C must maintain total system error of not more than 2nm of 95% of total flight time.

what is the effects of icing on the a/c?

-increases drag, decreases power/thrust, increase in weight and decrease in lift.

--may cause stall/tailplane stall

--landing must be done at a faster speed w/o flaps

what is GPWS? types? components?

Ground Proximity Warning System

components: radar altimeter, a/c navigation systems, and warning annunciators and alerts

types:

-basic: detects dangerous proximity to ground based off a/c altitude and decent rate.

-enhanced: as it says, include a database of terrain and obstacles along the a/c route. providing predictive warnings for terrain ahead.

TIS and TCAS

Traffic Identification System

-gives info of a/c with at least basic transponder (position and altitude) only if we have ADSB. Displayed on the MFD. Uses radar and ADSB.

-TIS-A: provides radar based traffic data to a/c within radar coverage.

-TIS-B: extends traffic info to a/c equipped w/ ADSB

Traffic Collision Avoidance System

-when nearby traffic is detected, TCAS calculates: altitude, direction, and proximity

-TCAS1: provides traffic advisory

-TCAS2: provides traffic advisory and resolution advisory.

De-Ice vs Anti-Ice equipment

De-Ice: eliminates ice

-pneumatic boots: inflates and cracks ice when used

-electro-impact: uses pulses of energy to produce rapid flexing movements across a/c surface

-electro-thermal system: heats surface to temp above freezing to break bond of accumulating ice

Anti-Ice: prevents ice accumulation

-bleed air systems: used for larger areas on a/c, bleeds air from turbine engines (drawback: using air from engine affects engine temp at low power settings)

-evaporative/running wet systems: applies a chemical agent that lowers the freezing point of water on the surface (isopropyl alcohol or ethylene glycol).

What is TAWS?

Terrain Awareness Warning System

-uses ground warning system and terrain obstacle data to know where potential obstacles are.

-TAWS A: Large commercial flights

-TAWS B: small commercial or general aviation (*doesn't have oral tone or ground proximity warning system due to not having a radio altimeter).

COLORS

red-within or under 100ft

yellow- more than 100ft less than 1000ft

green/black- 1000ft+ obstacle clearance

How does GPS work?

works off two principles:

-pseudo-ranging: satellites provide atomic time, position (lat & long), and station health to the a/c or receiver.

-GPS receivers calculate the distance using:

-----distance=ratextime

where the rate is the speed of light

-trilateration: the process of points by measurements of distances (pseudoranges) using the geometry of spheres.

-where the spheres intersect is where the a/c is most likely positioned

GPS components

space: the satellites in Earth's orbit

user: what we have to receive and process GPS signals

control: who operates the GPS system, operated and maintained by the Department of Defense and the US Air Force.

GPS Satellites and Functions

1 time

2 time

3 2D

4 3D

5 Fault detection

6 Fault Exclusion

What is WAAS? Purpose? Accuracy?

Wide Area Augmentation System

-Advanced GPS correction network that provides precise navigation for a/c

-It essencially narrows the GPS

-GPS: 10m(30ft) with WAAS: 3m(10ft)

How does WAAS work? what are the WAAS modes?

1. A GPS satellite sends down a signal

2. Down to a reference station

3. where it is sent to a master station, where it is corrected if erroneous.

4. Where it's sent to an uplink station

5. Then to a geostationary satellite

enroute: >30nm departure/destination

WAAS: 2 miles from centerline

No WAAS: 5 miles from centerline

terminal: <30nm departure/destination

WAAS: 1 mile from centerline

No WAAS: 1 mile from centerline

APA: <2nm from FAF

WAAS: .3 miles from centerline

No WAAS: .3 miles from centerline

Induced Drag vs Parasite Drag

Induced: byproduct of lift - lower pressure above the wing is "chased" by the higher pressure below the wing (decreases with speed)

Parasite: drag that affects a/c preformance

--form: shapes the a/c and anything that sticks out

--skin friction: roughness of airplanes surface (dirt, rivets, and debri)

--interference: mixing airflows between different parts of the a/c like wing and fuselage

left turning tendencies

1. torque: clockwise spinning propeller causes equal and opposite reaction of airflow, making a/c roll left (takeoff more prominent)

2. gyroscopic precession: in a decent force felt on top of the propeller but is felt 90 degrees in the direction of rotation (left yaw->opposite in climb)

3. P-Factor: in a climb the decending blade has a higher AOA therefore generates more lift

4. spiraling slipstream: propeller wash strikes the a/c on the left side of the vertical stabilizer

Adverse Yaw and Ground effect

Adverse Yaw: rolling in a direction the a/c tends to yaw i the opposite direction. Down aileron produces more lift and drag than up aileron

Ground Effect: occurs when close to the ground, increases lift and decreases induced drag, so the flare tends to be elongated.

What is RAIM? Purpose? Functions?

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring

- Autonomously monitors the integrity of the signals we are receiving

-needs 5 satellites

-Defaults and removes satellites from the nav solution if is producing an erroneous signal.

standard empty weight vs basic empty weight

standard empty weight: the weight of a standard airplane, including unusable fuel, full operating fluids, and full engine oil.

basic empty weight: standard empty weight plus optional equipment

CG, ARM, Station

CG: the point at which all of the weight of the a/c is concentrated

ARM: horizontal distance from the reference datum to the center of gravity of an item

station: a location along the a/c fuselage given in terms to the CG of an item

Types of Fog

USPAR

Upslope: moist unstable air is cooled as wind pushes it up a slope

Steam: cold dry air moves over warm body of water evaporating and saturating the air

Advection: coastal areas, daytime, stronger winds, moist air moves to colder surface, and cools to dewpoint

Radiation: calm, clear, cool nights ground cools at nighttime and cools air to dew point.

control performance

1. establish

2. trim

3. crosscheck

4. adjust

AFT vs FWD cg

FWD: nose heavy, more tail down force, lower TAS, higher stall speed, and better stall recovery

AFT: tail heavy, less tail down force, higher TAS, lower stall speed, worse stall recovery.