Socialism

Revolutionary Socialism

• Seeks to create a socialist society via a revolution and consider it impossible to achieve it any other way

• Reject evolutionary socialist approach as they argue that power in a capitalist society is not held by the state or with the people, therefore attempts to reform it via the state will always be unsuccessful

• Seek to completely abolish capitalism and replace it with socialism

• Envisage a communist society, developed after the revolution, which will be stateless and classless

• Therefore have revolutionary ‘means’ and fundamentalist ‘ends’

Social Democrats

• Evolutionary socialists - intent to use the state to change society

• Seek to tame capitalism rather than replace it, which makes them revisionists as their ‘ends’ and are more limited than fundamentalist socialists

• E.g. instead of committing to a fully equal society, they seek to reduce inequality

• Seek to achieve a more socialist society, specifically by nationalising key industries and using a progressive tax system to fund a welfare state

• Support Keynesian economics and government intervention in the economy

Third Way Socialists

• Also an evolutionary form of socialism, meaning they seek to use to state to change society

• Also known as neo-revisionism as they go beyond revisionism of social democracy

• Seek to connect socialist aims to a market economy

• In doing so, have redefined many socialist ideas, moving towards equality as inclusion, or equality of opportunity

• Also value the power of the community, rather than focusing on class, but argue that community involves reciprocal rights and responsibilities

Collectivism

• Communities prioritised over individuals

• Power is in the hands of the people as a whole, not in the hands of a few powerful individuals

• Decisions benefit all people, not the elite few

• Reflects the idea that human nature is sociable and implies that social groups are meaningful political units

• Stresses the capacity of human beings for collective action, their willingness and ability to pursue goals by working together

• John Donne (English poet) - “No man is an Island entire of itself”

• Humans are not self-reliant individuals, but are part of an indivisible community - tied together by the bond of common humanity (fraternity)

• Collective human effort is both of greater practical value to the economy and moral value to society than the effort of individuals

Fraternity

• Refers to the bonds of sympathy and solidarity between and among human beings

Common Humanity

• Socialists see human nature as elastic, shaped by the experiences and circumstances of life - nurture over nature

• Consider the idea of a separate or ‘atomised’ individual absurd

• Believe that individuals are inseparable from society and can only be understood through the communities and groups to which they belong

• Optimistic, positive belief in human nature - not only what people are, but what they have the capacity to become

• Natural relationship between humans is one of cooperation rather than competition

• Argue that human nature can revert to its natural state through the removal or reform of capitalism

• Cooperation and collaboration make more economic sense than competition, which often replicates and wastes resources - energies of the community rather than those of the single individual can be harnessed (more efficient)

• Believe that human beings can be motivated by moral incentives, not merely economic incentives - moral desire to work hard is the desire to contribute to the common good

Social Class

• Socialists use class as a way of understanding and analysing society - suggest that in early history, humans tended to think and act together with others with whom they shared a common economic position or interest, and that each class acting in its own interest caused divisions in society (Marx and Engels, historical change comes out of class conflict)

• Focuses specifically on the working class, which they view as the biggest in any society and the one that suffers most - view them as the class that can change society, and are most concerned with working class political struggles and liberation

• Don’t accept social class as a permanent feature of society - socialists either want a classless society or one in which class inequalities are substantially reduced

Equality

• Socialist egalitarianism is usually characterised by a belief in equality of outcome

• While socialists believe that foundational, formal equality and equality of opportunity are all fundamental requirements for an equal society, they are not a sufficient measure

• Fundamentalist socialists like Marx and Engels would argue that genuine social inequality is impossible in a capitalist society as it is an inherently unequal system which encourages inequality

• Socialists value equality as it allows humans to work together cooperatively and harmoniously, ensuring social cohesion and fraternity

• Humans inequality reflects the unequal structure of society

• Believe equality is the only genuine way to ensure human needs are met - basic needs are all fundamental to the human condition, distributing wealth on the basis of need-satisfaction is the only just way to organise society since all people have broadly similar needs

• Marx - equality must be based on the principle “From each according to his ability, to each according to his need”

Workers’ control

• Capital and private property as origins of competition and inequality

• Private property is unjust as wealth is produced by the e collective effort of human labour and should therefor be owned by the community, not just private individuals

• Private property encourages people to be materialistic, to believe that human happiness or fulfilment can be gained through the pursuit of wealth

• It is divisive - promotes conflict in society, e.g. between owners and workers, employers and employees or the rich and the poor

• Proposed the abolition of private property and advocated for common ownership of productive wealth, or at least, that the right to property be balanced against the interests of the community

• Beatrice Webb and Sidney Webb involved in writing Clause IV of 1918 Labour Party’s Constitution, which committed Labour to a form of evolutionary and fundamentalist socialism that sought to replace capitalism with socialism, as the “common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange” left no room for profit motive and competition required by capitalism

• According to common ownership, decisions on how resources are used should be made by, and benefit, the whole community, not the elite few

• By removing distinctions between owners and workers, socialists aspire to eliminate class distinctions and create a more equal society (worker’s control, i.e. nationalisation)

• Revolutionary socialists seek to remove control of industry from the bourgeoisie, whereas evolutionary forms of socialism look towards state ownership

Revolutionary Socialism (Marx and Engels)

• Marx and Engels - communism is a society characterised by classlessness as wealth is owned in common, and statelessness, as the state ‘withers away’

• Capitalism is doomed and communism destined to replace it

• Surplus value - profit can only be achieved by paying the proletariat less than the value their labour generates - exploitation is the defining characteristic of the relationship between the two main classes, and hence of capitalism itself - reforming the capitalist system can alleviate it, but cannot eliminate the relationship of exploitation and conflict which defines capitalism - “The Proletariate has nothing to lose but his chains”

• Historical Materialism - economics is the driving force in history. Someone’s economic circumstances determine their social development

Historical Materialism (Marx)

• Base - economy

• Superstructure - all other institutions that exists in society and the state, i.e. the political system, legal system, military and all other institutions of state, family, media, art and culture, education system and religion

• False consciousness - the delusion that prevents proletariat from recognising their own exploitation

• Argued that in capitalist societies, the running class imposes its own set of ideas and values, which uphold and protect their position, spreading them through society via the superstructure

• “The ideas of the ruling class are, in every age, the ruling idea”

• As the bourgeoisere owns and controls the base (the economy), they can control culture and ideas of society as a whole, through control of the superstructure, convincing them that capitalist values benefit everyone when they actually only benefit the elite few - uphold the bourgeoise hegemony

• Because they believe that base determines superstructure, they argue that it is impossible to create a socialist society via the state - have to sieze control of the economic base from bourgeoisie through revolution

Dialectic Materialism

• Marx believed that historical change results from class conflict in society - this is how history moves forward, via conflict between a dominant force (thesis) and its opposing force (antithesis), producing a new historical stage (synthesis) which becomes the new dominant force (thesis)

• Human history is thus in a perpetual struggle between the exploited and exploiter

• Classes, rather than individuals, are the agents of historical change

• Primitive communism - slavery - feudalism - capitalism - socialism - communism

Crisis of capitalism

• Marx believed capitalism was inherently unstable and exploitative, and bound to fall

• “Capitalism contains within itself the seeds of its own destruction”

• Luxembourg was clear that revolution could not be done for the working class, but must be done by them

• However, Marx realised that there could be no immediate or automatic switch from capitalism to communism - transitional state that would last as long as class antagonism persisted - dictatorship of the proletariat, to prevent counter-revolution by the bourgeoisie

Collectivism (Revolutionary)

• Believed that communism placed community/ the collective at the heart of al decision making

• Common ownership

• Absolute equality

• Production according to human need

• No state

• No classes

Common Humanity (Rev)

• Although human nature is naturally sociable, it can be moulded by circumstances (e.g. capitalism)

• Capitalism created false consciousness and competition, encouraging humans to ignore their common humanity and social nature rather than embrace it

• Communism was needed to encourage common humanity

Equality (Revolutionary)

• Believed in absolute equality, brought about by abolition of private property and common ownership of productive wealth

• For Marx and Engels, equality was based on society being classless and goods produced according to need (common good)

Worker’s Control (Revolutionary)

• For Marx and Engels, giving workers control of production is the only way of avoiding alienation

• Abolition of private property, creation of classless, communist society, collective ownership

• For Rosa Luxemburg, it was essential that workers were involved in the reaction and development of a truly socialist world - a socialist society was one where the workers, not bureaucrats made decisions about how society is developed - “The whole mass of the people must take part of it”

Evolutionary Socialism

• As 19th century progressed, enthusiasm for revolution diminished - capitalism had matured, wages and living standard started got rise and working class had range of institutions protecting their interests (e.g. trade unions)

• Gradual advance of franchise to the working class

• Shifted attention away from revolution to evolutionary, democratic, parliamentary road to socialism

• This was never accepted by revolutionary socialists - Luxemburg argued that evolutionary socialism led to a different goal rather than a peaceful approach to the same goal - evolutionary approach can never result in true socialism

• Fabian Society 1884 (Beatrice Webb) - took up cause of parliamentary socialism in the UK - gradualism (progress brought about by gradual improvements rather than upheaval - change through legal and peaceful reform)

• Eduard Bernstein believed that the establishment of a democratic state made the call for revolution redundant

Social Democracy (views)

• Took shape in mid-twentieth century, as socialist parties adopted parliamentary strategies and revised their goals, abandoning goal of abolishing capitalism and instead seeking to reform/ humanise it (revisionism)

• Supports a balance between market capitalism and strategy intervention, favouring a gradual approach to change (evolutionary)

• Capitalism is the only reliable means of generating wealth, but is morally defective at distributing wealth because of its tendency towards poverty and inequality

• The defects of the capitalist system can be rectified through economic and social intervention, the state being the defender of public interests

• Social change can and should be brought about peacefully and constitutionally

Collectivism (Social Democracy)

• Moved considerably away from the collective goals outlined by Revolutionary Socialists

• Crosland argued that capitalism was not longer a system of class exploitation, and a wholly collectivist society was no longer necessary to protect interests of the working class

• Crosland suggested that a new class of managers, experts and technocrats had replaced the old capitalist lass and come to dominate all advanced industrial societies - ownership of wealth had become separated from its control

• According to Crosland, means of production need not be owned collectively, because wealth could be redistributed through a welfare state funded by progressive taxation - based on the notion of collectivism as they rely on community where wealthiest support less wealthy

• Crosland reinterpreted socialism with the aim of social justice, rather than the politics of ownership - recognised that economic growth was essential to establish welfare system

• Mixed economy, a blend of public and private ownership - nationalisation is reserved for the ‘commanding heights’ of economy

• Economic management - Keynesianism as a way of controlling economy and delivering full employment

• Welfare state - principle means of reforming or humanising capitalism

Common Humanity (Social Democracy)

• Optimistic view of human nature - human fulfilment is linked to being part of a community and humans are bound together in a spirit of cooperation

• As revisionists, recognise corrupting influence of capitalism, as inequality and class distinctions in society create inferiority and resentment which limits humans’ ability to advance, restricting the development of their true humanity

Equality (Social Democracy)

• Believe a more equal society can be created alongside the capitalist system

• Crosland believes in relative social equality, meaning a reducing in inequality rather than a fully equal society

• Welfare state to reduce inequality

• Aims are largely confined to the eradication of poverty, not the endorsement of equality of outcome

Class (Social Democracy)

• Define social class in terms of income and status differences between middle and working class

• Crosland suggested that Marxist notion of classes was outdated, as share ownership had widened

• Their concern is associated with the narrowing of divisions between middle and working class, brought about through economic and social intervention

• Believed in social improvement and class harmony rather than social polarisation and class war

Worker’s Control (Social Democracy)

• Prepared to accept levels of private property alongside some form of workers’ control - state as an instrument of workers control - wealth can be collectively owned via nationalisation of key industries as part of a mixed economy

• Crosland - gradually distanced from ‘politics of ownership’ as ownership of wealth had become separated from its control - focus on reducing inequality rather than extending workers’ control or public ownership

• One one hand, pragmatic acceptance of capitalism, as the only reliable means of generating wealth

• On other hand, idea that poverty and inequality should be reduced by redistribution of wealth

Third Way (views)

• Anthony Giddens suggested that Third Way was a rational response to new political, social and economic environment

• Revised Clause IV of Labour constitution (Webb) - reflects principles of community, rights and responsibilities, equality of opportunity and realisation of potential

Workers’ Control (Third Way)

• Moved away from nationalisation, arguing capitalism had many positive traits and it was better to concentrate on supporting the most vulnerable in society rather than stifling its ability to create economic growth

• Giddens argued for a “new mixed economy” - acceptance of need for private partnerships with public services, and of consumer-friendly, efficient public services

• Decisions made by market over the state - built on neoliberal revolution of 1980s and 1990s

• Emphasised need for British industry to be able to compete in a globalised world, as businesses had a responsibility towards society

• Middle ground alternative route to socialism and free-market capitalism

Collectivism (Third Way)

• Put idea of ‘community’ at heart of values, recognising that humans are sociable

• Third Way community suggests that people have an obligation to each other and their communities - not connected to idea of equality

• Community is that people, not the state, have a responsibility to create a fair and decent community

• Communitarianism - a person is formed through their community, and thus owes them respect and consideration - reciprocal rights and responsibilities

• Seeks to end the influence of individualism in society and emphasise that everyone must contribute (moral responsibility)

Class (Third Way)

• Rejects the idea that society is composed of two classes that are in conflict - highlight ties that bind all members of society together, and thus ignore class differences

• Reject class-based analysis completely, focusing on supporting most vulnerable in society and refusing to recognise capitalism as a system of class exploitation

• Giddens preferred a consensual, community model of society - faith in consensus and social harmony, shouldn’t have to choose between an efficient economy and a fair one

• Endorse enterprise and fairness, opportunity and security, self-reliance and independence

• Giddens - Third way goes “beyond left and right”

Equality (Third Way)

• Moves away from social equality endorsed by Social Democrats to social justice and equality of opportunity, with focus on social inclusion

• All institutions must make sure the disadvantaged/ excluded members of society are encouraged to participate

• Equality of outcome was less important as equality of opportunity allows individuals to realise their potential

• Encourage individuals to support themselves rather than wealth distribution via state

• Welfare should be targeted at the socially excluded and help people help themselves - Blair - “hand up, not hand out”

• Giddens redefined ‘equality as inclusion” - opportunities rather than welfare

Common Humanity (Third Way)

• Responsibility towards humanity by reinforcing the importance of community, and acknowledged a sense of responsibility towards others

• Humans can be motivated by both material and moral incentives - balance between them

• Individual can be empowered by opportunities presented by free market

• Passionate advocate as of community, believing that humans are not unconnected atoms, but part of a community with responsibilities towards each other

Karl Marx (1818-83) - Revolutionary Socialist

• Historical materialism

• Didactic materialism - historical determinism

• Human nature is socially determined

• Alienation of workers in capitalist society -dissatisfied

• Common ownership

• Revolution

• “capitalism contains the seeds of its own destruction”

• “proletariats have nothing to lose but their chains”

Rosa Luxemburg (1871-1919) - Revolutionary Socialist

• Critiques Bolshevik revolution and condemned Lenin’s conception of a tightly centralised vanguard party as an attempt to exert political control over the working class

• Mass strike - class consciousness would develop naturally and revolution would occur through strikes - mass strike would radicalise workers and drive the revolution forward

• In contrast to Lenin and Marx, she rejected the need for a tight party structure, believing that organisation would emerge naturally from the struggle

• While Lenin believed that the Bolshevik Party must spearhead the revolution on behalf of workers, she believed that leaders should only represent the consciousness of workers ambition and not direct/ agitate them to act - foresaw that giving the role of vanguard would lead to dictatorship

• Rejected Eduard Bernstein’s revisionism as she defended Marxism and the necessity of revolution, arguing that Parliament was nothing more than a bourgeois scale

• While she advocated for socialist democracy, not same as revisionism of Bernstein - in her version of democracy, society should be organised by all the people, not a ruling elite

Beatrice Webb (1858-1943)

• Founded Fabian Society (1884) - socialism would develop naturally, and peacefully out of liberal capitalism

• Understood that political cation required the formation of a socialist party, which would compete for power against established parliamentary parties and they were actively involved in forming UK Labour Party (1918 Constitution - IV Clause)

• Permeation - converts people of power and influence to the policies of socialism

• Inevitability of gradualism

• Progressive extension of franchise would eventually lead to establishment of universal adult suffrage, and therefore political equality

• Political equality would work in the interests of the majority, as they decide outcome of elections - would invest power into working class

• Numerical strength of working class would ‘guarantee’ the electoral success of socialist parties

• Once in power, socialist parties would be able to carry out a fundamental transformation of society through social reform

• Advocated need for coordinated provision of welfare, including education, healthcare, pensions and work

Antony Crosland (1918-77)

• Dismissed Marxism on the grounds that capitalism had fundamentally reformed

• Revisionism rather than fundamentalism - capitalism could be humanised as ownership of industry was spread more widely

• Socialism should encourage people to fins self-fulfilment

• Believed working class no longer existed so they needed support of more centre, non-partisan voters

• Humanised capitalism through strengthened welfar state, Keynesian economics, wire use of progressive taxation and expansion of social ownership

• Sought to replace Webb’s ideas within Labour Party with a more modern vision of an ideal society

• Defined socialism in terms of ethical goals, notably equality, personal liberty, social welfare and social justice, rather than class antagonism and common ownership

• Welfare state should equip people with the skills they need to flourish

Anthony Giddens (1913–present)

• Third Way goes “beyond left and right” - emphasised globalisation, arguing that modern societies had become so complex that they must be organised substantially through the market and global networks, rather than by the state

• Emphasis on new mixed economy and acceptance of need for public-private partnership and consumer-friendly public services

• Globalisation makes it possible to spread progressive, socialist ideas beyond the UK

• “Equality as inclusion” - equality of opportunity and creating self-sufficiency rather than welfare

• Investment into education and training rather than pursuit of equality of outcome - would develop greater stock of human capital and increase competitiveness, leading to economic growth

• Communitarianism - need for more active and engaged community that would take greater responsibility for itself - both material and moral incentives (both individualism and collectivism)