Org Theory Metaphors 1-5

Machine Metaphor

Illustrates how organizations can be designed for efficiency, predictability, and control.

Mechanistic Organization

Structures organizations like machines, focusing on precision and predictability.

Bureaucracies

Organizations that operate under mechanistic principles, emphasizing efficiency and control.

Frederick the Great (1740-1786)

Implemented standardized practices in the Prussian army, exemplifying mechanistic organization.

Adam Smith (1776)

Advocated for division of labor, breaking tasks into specialized roles, enhancing mechanistic principles.

Unity of Command

Each employee reports to one superior to avoid confusion.

Scalar Chain

Clear authority lines ensure effective communication.

Span of Control

Limited subordinates per superior for better supervision.

Division of Work

Specialization increases efficiency.

Centralization

Decision-making is concentrated at the top levels of management.

Esprit de Corps

Promotes teamwork and unity among employees.

Scientific Management

Emphasized efficiency through scientific methods in work organization.

Frederick Taylor's Contributions

Introduced principles such as selecting suitable workers and training for efficiency.

Application in Industries

The fast-food industry, exemplified by McDonald's, showcases mechanistic organization through standardized processes and performance monitoring.

Strengths of Mechanistic Organizations

Simplicity: Easy to understand and implement organizational structures.

Efficiency of Mechanistic Organizations

Highly effective in stable environments with predictable tasks.

Limitations of Mechanistic Organizations

Rigidity: Difficulty adapting to change due to fixed structures.

Dehumanization

Workers may feel like replaceable parts, raising ethical concerns.

Open Systems

Organizations interact continuously with their environment, taking inputs and producing outputs.

Environment

Includes customers, competitors, suppliers, and regulatory bodies that influence organizational operations.

Mechanistic Organizations

Highly structured and rigid, suited for stable environments.

Organic Organizations

Flexible and adaptable, better for dynamic and uncertain environments.

Burns and Stalker (1960s)

Identified mechanistic and organic structures based on environmental demands.

Lawrence and Lorsch (1967)

Emphasized differentiation and integration within organizations.

Environmental factors

Play a crucial role in the survival and evolution of organizations, akin to natural selection.

Hawthorne Studies

Highlighted the importance of social and psychological factors in work motivation.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Indicates a range of employee needs beyond basic physiological ones when applied to organizational settings.

Sociotechnical Systems

Emphasizes the integration of social and technical systems within organizations.

Organism Metaphor

Serves as a tool for understanding organizational interactions with their environments, emphasizing adaptation and flexibility.

Organizations as Information-Processing Systems

Organizations process information, learn, and adapt like the human brain.

Bounded Rationality

Herbert Simon's concept that organizations and individuals make decisions with limited cognitive abilities and incomplete information.

Learning Organizations

Focus on continuous adaptation and evolution.

Single-Loop Learning

Correcting errors within existing norms.

Double-Loop Learning

Challenging and altering underlying norms and assumptions.

Holographic Design

Emphasizes embedding the 'whole' into each part of an organization for resilience and adaptability.

Networked Intelligence

Information is accessible throughout the organization.

Redundancy

Excess capacity promotes innovation and self-organization.

Requisite Variety

Organizational complexity must match environmental complexity for effective response.

Cybernetics

Focuses on feedback mechanisms for learning and regulation.

Negative Feedback

Maintains stability by correcting deviations from desired outcomes.

Decentralization

Encourages distributed decision-making and self-organization.

Adaptability

Enhances responsiveness to internal and external feedback.

Innovation

Supports experimentation and emergent problem-solving.

Flexibility

Promotes resilience in dynamic environments.

Organizations as Cultures

Views organizations as social entities with shared values, beliefs, rituals, and practices that shape how members perceive and interact with the world.

Culture

A shared system of knowledge, values, beliefs, and rituals that guide behavior within a society.

Organizational Culture

The distinct set of values, beliefs, and practices that define an organization and differentiate it from others.

Subcultures

Smaller cultures within an organization, often based on departments or shared experiences.

Countercultures

Groups whose values oppose the dominant organizational culture.

Enactment

The process through which individuals create and recreate shared realities through their actions and interactions.

Symbols and Rituals

Objects, events, or actions that convey meaning and reinforce cultural values.

Robert Presthus

Political scientist who described modern society as an 'organizational society.'

Murray Sayle

Historian who explored the link between Japanese organizational culture and rice cultivation.

Tom Peters & Robert Waterman

Authors of In Search of Excellence, emphasizing the power of shared values in organizational success.

Karl Weick

Organizational psychologist who described how individuals shape organizational realities through 'enactment.'

Strengths of the Culture Metaphor

Provides insights into the 'soft' side of organizations, highlighting how shared values and beliefs shape behavior and performance.

Limitations of the Culture Metaphor

Culture is difficult to define and measure, as it is a complex and dynamic phenomenon.

Culture as a Guiding Force

Organizations, like societies, have cultures that influence daily operations.

Social Construction of Reality

Members actively shape their shared understanding through interactions, creating meanings that guide behavior.

Impact of National Culture

National cultural values influence organizational practices but organizations can develop distinct cultures that diverge from national norms.

Cultural Change

Transforming an organization's culture requires addressing underlying values and assumptions, not just introducing new policies or slogans.

Organizations as Political Systems

Views organizations as arenas of power and conflict, where individuals and groups compete for resources, influence, and control.

Political Processes

Organizational decisions are often influenced by bargaining, negotiation, and coalition-building.

Interests

The goals, desires, and values individuals and groups seek to achieve within the organization, which often overlap and create tensions.

Conflict

Arises when interests collide, leading to competition for resources, influence, and control. Conflict can be functional or dysfunctional depending on how it is managed.

Power

The ability to influence others and achieve objectives, regardless of resistance. Power comes from various sources, including formal authority, expertise, control over resources, and networks.

Authority

A form of legitimized power associated with a position within the organization, often rooted in tradition, charisma, or legal-rational rules.

Political Tactics

Strategies used by individuals and groups to gain power, influence decisions, and achieve interests, including negotiation, persuasion, manipulation, and coercion.

Coalitions

Groups that come together to pursue shared interests and exert influence. These coalitions are dynamic and shift based on the issues at stake.

Jeffrey Pfeffer

Focused on power and influence in organizations, highlighting the importance of political skills for managerial effectiveness.

Gerald Salancik

Collaborated with Pfeffer on research on organizational power and decision-making.

Henry Mintzberg

Explored the different sources of power and their use within organizations.

Organizations as Systems of Government

Organizations, like governments, exhibit various forms of political rule, ranging from centralized authority to more participative systems.

Sources of Power

Power in organizations comes from formal authority, resource control, organizational structure, expertise, and interpersonal skills.

Political Dynamics and Strategies

Individuals and groups use various tactics, such as coalition-building, negotiation, manipulating information, and using symbols to influence organizational decisions.

Managing Pluralist Organizations

Most organizations are pluralist, with diverse interests that can lead to conflict but also foster creativity, innovation, and adaptability.

Strengths of the Political Systems Metaphor

Acknowledges the reality of power and conflict in organizations, offering a more realistic view of how decisions are made and resources are allocated.

Limitations of the Political Systems Metaphor

Can be perceived as cynical or negative, suggesting that organizations are inherently manipulative.

Moving Beyond Rationality

The metaphor challenges the traditional view of organizations as purely rational, recognizing that decisions often reflect power dynamics and the pursuit of individual or group interests.

Applying the Metaphor

The political systems metaphor is useful for understanding organizational complexities, encouraging individuals to be aware of political dynamics, develop political skills, and use power responsibly.