Szilvia Czevar + David den Dunnen Lectures

When was the UN founded and why

1945, to "save succeeding generations from the scourge of war" and maintain international peace and security.

Which UN organ has primary responsibility for peace and security

The Security Council (SC).

What powers does the Security Council have

Can impose sanctions, deploy peacekeepers, authorize force, adopt binding resolutions, and refer cases to the ICC.

What is the role of the General Assembly (GA) in peace and security

Discusses issues, makes recommendations, sets global norms, elects SC non-permanent members and ICJ judges, but resolutions are non-binding.

What is the function of the International Court of Justice (ICJ)

Settles disputes between states peacefully, gives advisory opinions, ensures legality under international law.

What is the principle of collective security

All states act together to stop threats to peace; SC enforces, GA legitimizes, ICJ provides legal guidance.

Which article bans the use of force by states

Article 2(4) of the UN Charter.

Which article allows self-defense

Article 51.

Under which UN chapter can the SC authorize military force

Chapter VII.

What are the two types of measures the SC can adopt under Chapter VII

Article 41 = non-military (sanctions, embargoes); Article 42 = military (force).

What is Article 39 about

SC determines existence of threat to peace, breach of peace, or act of aggression, and decides measures to restore/maintain peace.

What is a threat to peace

Potential conflict or situation that could lead to war (interstate wars, terrorism, WMD proliferation, apartheid).

What is a breach of peace

Ongoing armed conflict or fighting.

What is an act of aggression

Use of armed force violating sovereignty, territorial integrity, or political independence (UNGA Res. 3314).

Why did the GA create the "Uniting for Peace" Resolution (377A)

To act when SC is deadlocked due to veto, allowing GA to recommend collective measures including armed action.

Give an example where GA acted under "Uniting for Peace".

Korean War (1950), Suez Crisis (1956), Afghanistan (1980), Ukraine (2022).

What is the main weakness of the SC

P5 veto power can block action, selective enforcement, and outdated membership structure.

What is the main weakness of the GA

Resolutions are non-binding; one state = one vote can dilute influence; seen as a "talk shop."

What are today's main challenges for UN peace and security

Great power rivalries, SC paralysis, fragile host-state consent, overstretched peacekeeping, cyber/AI/climate threats, legitimacy deficit.

How can the UN adapt for future challenges

Invest in prevention, match mandates to resources, increase accountability, integrate climate/digital security, keep Security Council reform alive, appoint Envoy for Future Generations.

What is the membership of the General Assembly

All 193 UN member states, each with one vote (universality gives legitimacy).

What is the membership of the Security Council

15 members: 5 permanent (US, UK, France, Russia, China) + 10 non-permanent members elected for 2 years.

What is the difference between Articles 41 and 42 of the UN Charter

Article 41 = non-military measures (sanctions, diplomatic), Article 42 = military measures (force, peace enforcement).

How does the GA step in when the SC is paralyzed

Through Uniting for Peace Resolution (377A) and Emergency Special Sessions (ESS), recommending collective measures.

What is the legal basis for the GA Emergency Special Sessions

Article 11 of the UN Charter; requires 2/3 majority in GA.

During the Cold War, why was the Security Council ineffective

Veto power of US and USSR blocked each other's initiatives; collective security rarely functioned.

What is the significance of the GA's Uniting for Peace Resolution

GA could recommend collective measures when SC was deadlocked, giving political legitimacy even though non-binding.

What is the difference between the powers of GA and SC

GA = discussion, recommendations, norm-setting, non-binding; SC = binding resolutions, sanctions, force, enforcement.

What does Article 2(3) UN Charter require

All disputes must be settled peacefully.

Is the UN a national government?

No, the UN is not a national organization and does not represent all citizens of a country.

Which UN Charter chapter deals with the Security Council?

Chapter V.

Who are the permanent members of the Security Council (P5)?

United States, United Kingdom, France, Russia, China.

How long is the term for non-permanent Security Council members?

2 years.

How are non-permanent members elected?

By the General Assembly.

What happens if a P5 member abstains on a non-procedural vote?

It counts as concurrence; abstention does not block adoption (ICJ 'Namibia' Advisory Opinion, 1971).

What happens if a P5 member is absent?

Absence is treated like abstention; it does not block the adoption of a resolution.

What is collective security?

The institutionalization of lawful use of force in the international community via the UN system and Security Council.

What exceptions exist to the prohibition of force in the UN Charter?

Security Council authorization under Chapter VII.

What are peaceful coercive measures the SC can take?

Article 41: sanctions, embargoes, referral to ICC Prosecutor.

What are non-peaceful coercive measures?

Article 42: military force, peace enforcement.

Which article requires member states to execute SC decisions?

Article 48.

What is the significance of Res. 678?

It became the standard formula for SC resolutions authorizing military intervention to restore international peace and security.

Why is it controversial for the SC to adopt binding resolutions on generic threats?

It may overstep its authority and blur limits of powers under Article 24(2) and the Charter preamble.

Which article establishes that UN Charter obligations prevail over other treaty obligations?

Article 25 joined with Article 103.

Why do states compete for non-permanent SC membership?

Prestige, diplomatic influence, networking, soft power, experience in international decision-making.

What does Article 25 UNSC specify?

All UN members are bound to carry out Security Council decisions.

What is Article 33 about?

Calls for peaceful settlement of disputes; SC may call upon parties to negotiate, but not necessarily binding.

What is NATO?

An alliance of sovereign states committed to political consultation and collective defense, based on the North Atlantic Treaty (Washington Treaty) signed 4 April 1949.

When was NATO founded?

4 April 1949.

What is NATO's core purpose?

Protect freedom and security of members through political consultation and collective defense.

Which article of the North Atlantic Treaty covers collective defense?

Article 5: an attack on one member is considered an attack on all.

What are NATO's three core tasks according to the Strategic Concept 2022?

Deterrence & defence, crisis prevention & management, cooperative security.

Does NATO have its own army?

No; member states provide forces and equipment. NATO provides political direction, planning, and command structures.

What bodies provide NATO's political guidance?

The North Atlantic Council (NAC) and the Secretary General.

What bodies provide NATO's military guidance?

International Military Staff, Military Committee, Allied Command Operations (SHAPE).

Which article defines NATO's geographic area for collective defense?

Article 6.

When was Article 5 invoked?

After the 9/11 attacks in 2001; the only time in NATO's history.

Why did France leave NATO's integrated military command in 1966?

To regain strategic independence, national control over armed forces, nuclear deterrent, and foreign policy; opposed perceived U.S. dominance in NATO.

When did France return to NATO's integrated military command?

2009.

What is NATO's relation with Russia during the Cold War?

Adversarial; NATO and USSR/Warsaw Pact were opposing military blocs.

How did NATO-Russia relations change after 1991?

Initially cooperative; later deteriorated after Russia's actions in Georgia (2008), Crimea (2014), and invasion of Ukraine (2022).

What does NATO's Strategic Concept 2022 state about Russia?

Russia is the most significant and direct threat to Allies' security.

What is deterrence?

Preventing aggression by convincing an adversary that attack would be costly.

What is NATO's integrated military command?

Command structure that plans and directs allied military operations; France partially withdrew in 1966 and rejoined in 2009.

Which U.S. policies influenced NATO's creation?

Truman Doctrine (1947), Marshall Plan (1948), and Containment Policy.

What was NATO's purpose during the Cold War?

Deterrence of Soviet aggression and defense of Western Europe.

What was NATO's role in the 1990s?

Crisis management and operations beyond member territory (Balkans, partnerships with former Warsaw Pact states).

What is NATO's enlargement process?

Membership requires unanimous agreement by all Allies; based on Article 10 of the treaty.

What is the North Atlantic Council (NAC)?

NATO's top political decision-making body, composed of permanent representatives from all member states; decisions taken by consensus.

Who chairs the NAC?

The Secretary General.

What is the role of the Military Committee in NATO?

Provides military advice to NAC; coordinates military planning and operations.

What is SHAPE?

Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe; runs operations when activated.

What modern threats does NATO address according to Strategic Concept 2022?

State aggression (Russia), terrorism, cyber, hybrid attacks, strategic competition, advanced weapons proliferation.

What was the significance of NATO's Article 5 invocation after 9/11?

Demonstrated political and practical solidarity among members, coordinated War on Terror operations.

Why does NATO rely on member states for forces?

NATO has no standing army; it provides coordination and command only when Allies agree to contribute.

What is the difference between collective defence and collective security?

Collective defence: mutual defense among alliance members (NATO). Collective security: broader peace preservation among many states (UN).

Why is consensus important in NATO decision-making?

Ensures political agreement among all Allies; prevents unilateral decisions but can slow or block action.