AP World Assessment 1450-1900

Ottoman empire

Founded by the Osman dynasty in the 1300s. Emerged as a great power around the 15th century

Where was the ottoman empire

It extended into modern-day Turkey, the Balkan areas of Europe (Southeast), parts of North Africa and Southeast Asia

Largest and most enduring of the great Islamic Empires

the Ottoman empire

Mehmed II rule

1451 - 1481

Mehmed II

1. Established the capital Constantinople in 1453 (previously the capital of the Byzantine Empire) → name changed to Istanbul

2. Strengthened Ottoman navy

3. By the 16th century Ottomans gained Syria, Israel, Egypt, and Algeria —> decline of the Mamluk Dynasty → Istanbul became a center of Islam

Seleiman I rule

1520-1566

Seleiman I

1. The empire reached its peak during this period

2. Armies overran Hungary and the gates of Vienna (main city of Austria)

3. Suleiman's navy captured parts of Greece and North Africa

Trade and trade embargos of the Ottoman Empire

Often used trade embargos on Safavid SIlk traders as a way to assert their dominance

Trade embargo

Ban on trade

Ottoman empire religion

Byzantines previously followed Eastern Orthodox then Ottomans became Islam. Mostly Sunni Muslims. Some tolerance under Suleiman and less under later rulers. Followed Sharia law

Sharia law

strict Islamic legal system

Janissaries

Poor Christian boys who became educated and skilled. Some became powerful forces of the Ottoman army while others were scribes, tax collectors, diplomats, and bodyguards that served the sultan

Suleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul

Built by the Ottoman Empire. It was a large palace to legitimize power. A center of Islam, Western end of Silk Roads, Bazaar of foreign imports.

Istanbul

Capital of the Ottoman Empire. Center of arts and learning. Poets and scholars met in coffeehouses and gardens 

Ottoman empire art

Miniature paintings and illuminated manuscripts

Mughal Empire

Founded in 1520s

Ottoman empire end

It was defeated by the Allies of World War I 

Babur

A descendant of Tamerlane founded the Mughal Dynasty in the 1520s. Babur formed a central government similar to Suleiman in Turkey

Akbar (1556 - 1605)

Babur’s grandson. Under his rule, the Mughal Empire was one of the richest and most well-governed states in the world. It was a very peaceful period where overseas trade flourished. Arab traders conducted commerce.

Commerce

the exchange of goods and services between two or more entities.

Goods

Textiles, tropical foods, spices, and stones in exchange for gold and silver

Jatis

Strict social grouping designated at birth. It divides Hindus into four categories → brahmins, Kshatruyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Outside of the cast were the untouchables in cahoots. This was the basis of opportunities in Indian society

Religion in the Mughal Empire

Religious tolerance under Akbar and less under later rulers

How was Akbar tolerant of other religions

He gave money to Hindus and Muslims, as well as the Catholic church in southwest India. He provided land grants for the new religion, Sikhism. He also tried to ease Hindu and Islam tensions.

Sikhism

Monotheistic blend of Hinduism and Islam. It recognized the rights of other religions to exist. One of most popular in the world by 21st century

Taj Mahal

A mausoleum in Agra (Northern India). It was built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife

Example of architecture in the Mughal Empire

Beautified Delhi (The Red Fort) in Northern India

Art in the Mughal Empire

Craftspeople combined arts of Islam and formed structures with decorative geometric designs

Safavid Empire

Originates in the Safavid order of Sufism (established in Iran)

Ismail

Conquered Persia, some of Iraq, and Iran. He proclaimed shah or emperor in 1501

Safavid Empire military and locational problems

They were located on the Arabian Sea (part of the Indian Ocean) they did not have a navy. Their land-based military and strong leadership brought them to power

Shah Abbas or Abbas the Great ( 1588 - 1629 )

The empire was at its peak during this time. His troops were soldiers (generally Christian boys). Weapons from Europe and relied on them for info about new military technology

Women in the Safavid Empire

Women were allowed to participate in their societies. Had rights by Islamic law for inheritance and in certain cases, divorce. Still veiled and restricted, normal for the region

Safavid Empire religion

Shia Islam became their unifying force. Ismial has a base that denied legitimacy to any Sunni. This created Hostilities with the Ottoman. Still present in modern day Iraq and Iran

The Mosque of Isfahan

located in Iran. Masterpiece of Persian architecture 

Safavid Empire art

Ceramics, glass, and gardens

What was the Battle of Chaldiran

A battle in 1514 between the Safavid Empire and the Ottoman Empire

Outcome of the Battle of Chaldiran

Ottoman victory. Led to annexation(the Ottomans took) of eastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia, Ottoman control over trade routes between Tabriz, Aleppo, and Bursa, and conquest of the Arabian Peninsula and Mamluk territories in Egypt and Syria by 1517. Overall, the Ottomans got more land and trade power

Lasting effects of the Battle of Chaldiran

The battle and subsequent Ottoman advance were instrumental in forging a frontier between the two empires that defined the modern-day border between Turkey and Iran.

Ottoman empire Impact on trade routes for Europeans

Due to the capture of Constantinople (1453) by the Ottoman Turks, they now had significant control of the Silk Road, which European countries used to trade with Asia. Many sources state that the Ottoman Empire “blocked” the Silk Road. This meant that while Europeans could trade through Constantinople and other Muslim countries, they had to pay high taxes. The Europeans' efforts to avoid the Ottomans eventually led to the Age of Exploration, the discovery of the Americas, and the emergence of a new global economy.

Guns, Germs & Steel

This concept argues that geographic factors, not cultural, racial, or economic factors, determine the development of civilizations. 

Conquest of the Inca’s main reason 1: Spanish Conquest

One of the primary and immediate causes was the Spanish conquest led by Francisco Pizarro. The Inca Empire fell victim to superior weaponry, tactics, and diseases brought by the Spanish conquistadors. Smallpox and other European diseases devastated the Inca population, weakening the empire significantly.

Conquest of the Inca’s main reason 2: Internal Discontent

The Inca Empire faced internal strife and challenges to its leadership. The Spanish exploited existing political tensions, taking advantage of a civil war between the brothers Atahualpa and Huascar over the throne.

Conquest of the Inca’s main reason 3: Technological Disparities

The Spanish had advanced military technology, including firearms, cannons, and steel weapons, which gave them a significant advantage in battles. The Inca, although possessing military strength, did not have the same level of technological sophistication

Conquest of the Inca’s main reason 4: Alliance with Local Tribes

The Spanish formed alliances with indigenous groups who were discontent with Inca rule. These groups, seeking to overthrow the Inca, allied with the conquistadors, providing them with support in terms of manpower and information.

Conquest of the Inca’s main reason 5: Capture of Atahualpa

The capture and execution of the Inca ruler Atahualpa in 1533 by the Spanish significantly weakened the Inca resistance. Despite Atahualpa offering a ransom in gold and silver, the Spanish executed him, leaving a power vacuum and creating further chaos

Conquest of the Inca’s main reason 6: Economic Exploitation

 The Spanish exploited the wealth of the Inca Empire, particularly the vast amounts of gold and silver. The looting of precious metals further weakened the Inca economy and disrupted the existing socio-economic structure.

Conquest of the Inca’s main reason 7: Cultural Disparities

The clash of cultures and the imposition of Spanish religious and social norms contributed to the disruption of Inca society. The imposition of Christianity and the destruction of Inca religious and cultural practices further undermined the cohesion of the empire.

Aztec Empire/ Mexica Empire

Mesoamerican empire that ruled over a large territory that included parts of modern-day Mexico and Central America from the 14th to the 16th century.

Who founded the Aztec Empire

the Aztec civilization, which developed in the central valley of Mexico and eventually came to dominate much of the region through military conquests.

What is the Aztec empire known for

its cultural achievements and its sophisticated system of government and administration.

Aztecs and the arts

During the Aztec Empire, the arts, including literature, music, and architecture, flourished. The Aztecs were skilled metalworkers and weavers and produced many works of art and crafts in gold, silver, and other materials.

Aztec and education

The empire was also a center of learning and scholarship, with the establishment of several major universities and the support of scholars and intellectuals.

Aztec writing

The Aztec Empire is particularly known for its system of writing, which was based on glyphs, or symbols, that represented sounds and concepts.

Aztec Fall

The Aztec Empire came to an end in the 16th century, when it was conquered by the Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés. The fall of the Aztec Empire marked the end of the pre-Columbian civilizations in Mesoamerica and the beginning of the colonial period.

The Inca Empire (Inka Empire or the Tawantinsuyu)

A South American empire that ruled over a large territory that included parts of modern-day Peru, Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia, Argentina, and Colombia from the 13th to the 16th century.

Who founded the Inca Empire

by the Inca civilization, which developed in the Andean region of South America and eventually came to dominate much of the region through military conquests.

What is the Inca Empire known for

its cultural achievements and its sophisticated system of government and administration.

Incas and the arts

The arts, including literature, music, and architecture, flourished. The Incas were skilled metalworkers and weavers and produced many works of art and crafts in gold, silver, and other materials.

Incas’ education

The empire was also a center of learning and scholarship, with the establishment of several major universities and the support of scholars and intellectuals

Inca writing system

a system of quipus, which were knotted cords that were used for record-keeping and communication.

Inca fall

came to an end in the 16th century, when it was conquered by the Spanish conquistadors, led by Francisco Pizarro. The fall of the Inca Empire marked the end of the pre-Columbian civilizations in South America and the beginning of the colonial period.

General causes of Maritime Exploration (1450-1750)

The 3 Gs: God, glory, and gold. Developments of transoceanic travel and trade such as Ships like the Carrack, Caravel, and Fluyt. Also the Omani-European rivalry.

China’s causes of Maritime Exploration

to open up trade networks with India, Arabia, and Africa and to spread Chinese culture

England’s causes of Maritime Exploration

To find a sea round to the East going west from Europe

Spain’s causes of Maritime Exporation

To find a sea route to India and China going west from Europe and to demonstrate that Europeans could reach Asia by sailing west

Portugal’s causes of Maritime Exploration

To open a sea route from Europe to India and China

General effects of Maritime Exploration

The combination of navigational techniques invented in Europe with those from other areas of the world was a rapid expansion of exploration and global trade. The introduction of gunpowder, another Chinese invention, aided Europeans in their conquests abroad. Navigational techniques continued to spread throughout the 17th century.

Effects of Maritime Exploration in North America and Africa

Islam spread rapidly as a result of the growth of the Abbasid Empire, centered in Baghdad, and the activities of Muslim merchants. Interactions among various cultures inside and outside of Africa brought extensive trade and new technology to the continent

Effects of Maritime Exploration in China

China decided not to continue exploring

Effects of Maritime Exploration in England

Claimed land in Canada for Britain and established a shorted, more northerly route across the Atlantic than Coulumbus’s route

Effects of Maritime Exploration in Portugal

Portugal expanded trade and cultural exchange between India and Europe

Effects of Maritime Exploration in Spain

Spain led the European exploration and colonization of the Americas. Spain established links between links between the Americas and Asia across the Pacific Ocean

Causes of the columbian Exchange in the western hemisphere

• okra, rice, oranges, grapes, lettuce, coffee

• Animals like: Horses, oxen, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, mosquitoes, rats, chickens

• People

  • Europeans and Africans

• Diseases spread such as smallpox, measles, typhus, bubonic plague, and influenza

• Technology and Ideas such as alphabetic writing and firearms

Causes of the columbian Exchange in the eastern hemisphere

• Food such as potatoes, maze, manioc, tobacco, cacao, peanuts

• Animals like turkeys, llamas, alpacas, guinea pigs

• Diseases like syphilis

• People like Native Americans

• Ideas like rubber and quinine

Effects of the columbian Exchange in the western hemisphere

• Dramatic changes in population and biodiversity 

• the global economy, sometimes with unintended consequences,

• Better nutrition

• Increase in population

• Greater wealth

• More diverse diet

• New types of textiles

• Increased health risks

• Ethnic diversity

• Rubber was first used as an eraser 

• Quinine provided a treatment for malaria

Effects of the columbian Exchange in the eastern hemisphere

• Dramatic changes in population and biodiversity 

• the global economy, sometimes with unintended consequences,

•  Deforestation to make way for sugar, wheat, barley, okra, rice, and other crops and Soil erosion because of overgrazing

• Soil depletion from growing the same crops repeatedly on the same land

• Overgrazing by cattle, sheep, and goats

• Spread of diseases from mosquitoes, rats, and live stock

• Chattel slavery

• Racial diversity and Social structures based on race and ethnicity

• Millions of deaths among Native American pop.

• Improved communication 

• New methods for hunting and warfare

Prince Henry of Portugal- School of Navigation

Although Prince Henry himself did not go on voyages, his influence and sponsorship of exploration laid the foundation for Portuguese maritime successes in the following decades. The knowledge and advancements made at the School of Navigation contributed to the Age of Discovery, ultimately leading to new trade routes and connections between Europe and the rest of the world.

School of Navigation contributions: Promotion of Exploration

Prince Henry was a strong advocate for maritime exploration, particularly the exploration of the African coast. He sought to find new trade routes to Asia and access to valuable resources

School of Navigation contributions: Navigation Techniques

The School of Navigation focused on improving navigation techniques, mapmaking, and shipbuilding. Prince Henry sponsored the development of more advanced navigational instruments, such as the astrolabe and quadrant

School of Navigation contributions: Exploration of the African Coast

Portuguese explorers, under Prince Henry's sponsorship, ventured further down the African coast. Infamous explorers like Gil Eanes and Diogo Cão explored and mapped previously unknown territories.

School of Navigation contributions: Cape Bojador

One significant achievement was the successful rounding of Cape Bojador in 1434 by one of Prince Henry's captains, Gil Eanes. This accomplishment dispelled fears and superstitions that had surrounded the cape for centuries

School of Navigation contributions: Development of Caravels

Prince Henry and the School of Navigation played a role in the development of caravels, agile and versatile sailing vessels that were well-suited for long oceanic voyages.

Simon Bolivar

Leader of the most notable movements for independence known as the "Liberator" led the wars of independence in what are now Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.

Spanish and Portuguese colonies in South America gained independence from their European colonizers (18th +19th Centuries)

These movements for independence were sparked by a combination of factors such as economic hardship, political oppression, and a desire for self-governance.

Pedro I

Led the process for Brazil to gain independence through peaceful means. He declared Brazil's independence from Portugal in 1822 and became its first emperor.

Movements for independence in South America

Had a profound impact on the region, leading to the formation of new nation-states and the reshaping of political and economic systems.

The Treaty of Tordesillas

An agreement signed on June 7, 1494, between Spain and Portugal during the Age of Discovery. The primary purpose of the treaty was to resolve conflicts arising from the competition for overseas territories and newly discovered lands. The negotiations were mediated by Pope Alexander VI.

1st main idea of The Treaty of Tordesillas - Division of the World

The treaty aimed to divide the newly discovered and undiscovered territories outside of Europe between Spain and Portugal. The dividing line was established 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands (off the coast of Africa).

2nd main idea of The Treaty of Tordesillas - Portuguese and Spanish Spheres of Influence

Land to the east of the designated line was reserved for Portugal, while land to the west belonged to Spain. This division was made to minimize conflicts between the two Iberian powers as they expanded their empires through exploration and colonization.

3rd main idea of The Treaty of Tordesillas - Exception for Non-Christian Lands

The treaty only applied to territories that were not already under the control of Christian rulers. Any lands already under Christian rule were not subject to the division outlined in the treaty.

Line of Demarcation

 one specific line drawn along a meridian in the Atlantic Ocean as part of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 to divide new lands claimed by Portugal from those of Spain. This line was drawn in 1493 after Christopher Columbus returned from his maiden voyage to the Americas

Columbian Exchange

The Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World (Africa, Asia and Europe) in the 15th and 16th centuries following Christopher Columbus's voyages.

Transatlantic Trade

This is trade across the Atlantic Ocean between Africa, Europe and the Americas. It includes but is not limited to part of what we call the Columbian Exchange.

Smallpox

A highly contagious disease brought over from Europe during the Columbian Exchange that decimated Native American populations who had no immunity against it.

Coerced Labor (slave labor)

Coerced labor refers to a system where workers are forced to work under threat of violence or other forms of punishment. This includes slavery, indentured servitude, and serfdom.

Slavery

A form of coerced labor where individuals are owned by others, who control where they live and at what they work.

Indentured Servitude

A system in which a person is bound by contract for a fixed period to work for someone else in exchange for travel expenses, training, or other benefits.

Serfdom

The status of peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism. It was a condition of bondage that developed primarily during the High Middle Ages in Europe and lasted until the mid-19th century.

Christopher Columbus

an Italian explorer who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean under the auspices of Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II & Isabella I. His expeditions opened up transatlantic navigation leading to widespread European exploration & eventual conquest of the Americas.