AP Psych - Unit 2A: Remembering and Forgetting

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

information-processing model

describing human memory using analogies that compare it to a computer's operations

encoding

the process of entering information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining information in the memory system over time

retrieval/recall

the process of getting information out of the memory system for use

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously, as opposed to serial processing

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of external stimuli

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before information is stored or forgotten

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory

phonemic memory

how words sound

prospective memory

remembering to do something at some future time

multi-store model

An explanation of memory based on three separate memory stores, and how information is transferred between these stores.

working memory model

describing short-term memory with a focus on conscious, active processing of visual-spatial information, auditory information, and information retrieved from long-term memory by a "central executive"

central executive

part of Alan Baddeley's model of working memory that oversees the visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop, and episodic buffer. Responsible for shifting and dividing attention

phonological loop

part of Alan Baddely's model of working memory that allows for the repetition of verbal information to aid with encoding it into memory

visuospatial sketchpad

a storage component of working memory that maintains visual images and spatial layouts in a visuospatial code

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

forgetting curve

a graphic depiction of how recall steadily declines over time

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

Dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

Alzheimer's

A progressive disease that destroys memory and other important mental functions.

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

implicit memory

memories that we don't consciously recall and "declare" but are nevertheless retained

procedural memory

memory of motor skills and behavioral habits

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental and/or well-learned information

iconic memory

our sensory register for visual stimuli

echoic memory

our sensory register for auditory stimuli

prosepctive memory

remembering to do something at some future time

maintenance rehearsal

retaining information in short-memory by simply repeating it over and over

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

peg-word system

a mnemonic in which items on a list are remembered by being associated with the sequential items in a memorized jingle

method of loci

a mnemonic in which items on a list are remembered by being associated with a sequence of familiar physical locations

acronyms

a mnemonic in which items are remembered by using the first letter of each item to form word or phrase

acrostics

a mnemonic in which items are remembered by associating each item on a list with a word in a phrase or poem that shares the same first letter

rhymes/songs

a mnemonic in which items are remembered by associating them with a catchy rhyme scheme or melody

categories

networks of associated memories that have features in common with each other

hierarchies

a way of processing information into a few broad concepts, divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts

massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

the tendency for memory to be more enhanced by active retrieval than by passive rereading of information

levels of processing theory

proposes that we can attend to verbal information at different "depths" and that "depth" affects long-term retention of the information

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words; yields inferior retention

deep processing / semantic encoding

encoding based on the meaning of words; yields superior retention

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process memories explicit memories for long-term storage

basal ganglia

a neural center of the deep brain that helps process implicit memories, especially procedural memories, for long-term storage

episodic memory

memory of personal experiences and events

semantic memory

memory of facts and general knowledge

memory trace

physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed

memory consolidation

the gradual, physical process of converting new long-term memories to stable, enduring memory codes

structural memory

when we encode only the physical qualities of something

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood, particularly before the age of 3

flashbulb memory

a particularly vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

long-term potentiation

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation, the neural basis for learning and memory

recall

a measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information learned earlier, such as a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which a person must identify information previously learned, such as a multiple-choice test

context-dependent memory

improved recall of specific episodes or information when one is in the same circumstances or environment as they were during encoding

state-dependent memory

improved recall of specific episodes or information when one is in the same internal or mental condition as they were during encoding

mood-congruent memory

improved recall of specific episodes or information that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

metacognition

thinking about thinking; awareness, understanding, and/or evaluation of one's own thought processes

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

retrieval cues

stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations in memory

encoding specificity principle

the idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded

interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

encoding failure

the inability to remember information because it was not effectively entered into the memory system in the first place

storage decay

the inability to remember information because it has faded over time

retrieval failure

the inability to remember information because it cannot be accessed in storage

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

autobiographical memory

the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism in which anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories are banished from consciousness

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

constructive memory

memory that utilizes knowledge and expectations to fill in the missing details in retrieved memory traces

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

imagination inflation

a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined