Psych110 - chapter 6

Learning

Any relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.

_____ is one of the most fundamental concepts in all of psychology that shapes personal habits, such as nail-biting; personality traits, such as shyness; personal preferences, such as a distaste for formal clothes; and emotional responses, such as reactions to favorite songs.

Learning

________ involves learning associations between events that occur in an organism’s environment.

Conditioning

Irrational fears of specific objects or situations.

Phobias

Classical Conditioning

A type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.

What is classical conditioning also called?

Pavlovian conditioning

Pavlov demonstrated that stimulus-response associations are formed by what?

Events in an organism’s environment

The bond Pavlov noted between the meat powder and salivation is what type of response?

The response did not have to be created through conditioning. It is therefore called an unconditioned association.

A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning.

Unconditioned response (UR)

A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning.

Conditioned response (CR)

Although the unconditioned response and conditioned response sometimes consist of the same behavior, subtle differences usually exist between them, as conditioned responses often are ________ .

weaker or less intense

Pavlov’s “psychic reflex” came to be called the _______.

conditioned reflex

_________ have traditionally been characterized as _____ and are said to be elicited (drawn forth) because most of them are relatively automatic or involuntary.

Classically conditioned responses ; reflexes

A _______ in classical conditioning consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli.

Trial

Conditioned fears are less likely to develop when events seem _____ and ____, and when __________.

Escapable and controllable; people have a history of nontraumatic encounters in similar situations.

People who are relatively low in anxiety probably acquire conditioned fears ______ than those who are highly anxious.

less readily

For example, Ader and Cohen (1993) have shown that classical conditioning procedures can lead to immune suppression. Animals are injected with a drug (US or CS?) that chemically causes immune suppression, while they are simultaneously given an unusual-tasting liquid to drink (the US or CS?). Days later, after the chemically induced immune suppression has ended, some of the animals are reexposed to the _____ by giving them the unusual-tasting solution. Measurements of antibody production indicate that animals exposed to the _____ show a reduced immune response.

Drug = Unconditioned stimulus

Liquid = Conditioned stimulus

Last two blanks are CS

Studies have also demonstrated that classical conditioning can influence sexual arousal (Domjan & Akins, 2011). For example, research has shown that quail can be conditioned to become sexually aroused by a neutral, nonsexual stimulus—such as a red light—that has been paired with opportunities to copulate (Domjan, 1994). Researchers have also conditioned quail to develop sexual fetishes for inanimate objects (Cetinkaya & Domjan, 2006). Classical conditioning may also underlie the development of sexual fetishes in humans. It seems likely that humans could be conditioned to be aroused by objects—such as shoes, boots, leather, and undergarments—that have been paired with sexual encounters.

Refers to changes in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli.

Evaluative conditioning

What type of conditioning is this? “A neutral stimulus might be paired with an unconditioned stimulus that triggers positive reactions so that the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits similar positive reactions.”

evaluative conditioning

“Pairing pictures of high-calorie snacks with images of adverse health effects (obesity and cardiovascular disease) fostering more negative attitudes about the unhealthy snacks, and subsequently led subjects to choose fruit over highly caloric snacks.”

What type of conditioning is this an example of?

Evaluative Conditioning

In sum, studies of evaluative conditioning have consistently shown that the liking of a stimulus can be _______ by pairing it with positive stimuli and ________ by pairing it with negative stimuli.

Increased; decreased

The initial stage of learning a new response tendency.

Acquisition

Stimuli are ______ if they occur together in time and space.

Contiguous

Evidence suggests that stimuli that are novel, larger, or especially intense have more potential to become CS’s than routine stimuli. Why?

They are more salient; that is, they are more likely to stand out among other stimuli.

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency.

Extinction

What leads to extinction in classical conditioning?

The consistent presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone, without the unconditioned stimulus.

The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

If a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is returned to the original environment where acquisition took place.

Renewal Effect

Extinction does not appear to lead to ________.

unlearning

After conditioning has occurred, organisms often show a tendency to respond not only to the exact CS used but also to what?

Other, similar stimuli

Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

Stimulus generalization

Albert was initially unafraid of a live white rat. Then Watson and Rayner (1920) paired the presentation of the rat with a loud, startling sound (made by striking a steel bar with a hammer). Albert did show fear in response to the loud noise. After seven pairings of the rat and the gong, the rat was established as a CS eliciting a fear response (see Figure 6.7). Five days later, Watson and Rayner exposed the youngster to other stimuli that resembled the rat in being white and furry. They found that Albert’s fear response generalized to a variety of stimuli, including a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat, a Santa Claus mask, and Watson’s hair.

Generalization depends on the _______ between the new stimulus and the original CS.

similarity

The basic law governing generalization is this: The more similar new stimuli are to the original CS, _____.

the greater the likelihood of generalization

Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

Stimulus discrimination

“For instance, let’s say your dog runs around excitedly wagging his tail whenever he hears your car pull up in the driveway. Initially, it will probably respond to all cars that pull into the driveway (stimulus generalization). However, if there is anything distinctive about the sound of your car, your dog may gradually respond with excitement only to your car and not to other cars.”

This is an example of what?

Stimulus Discrimination

The development of stimulus discrimination usually requires that the original CS (your car) continues to be paired with the ______, while similar stimuli (the other cars) are ______.

US (your arrival); not paired with the US.

The ______ new stimuli are to the original CS, the greater the likelihood (and ease) of discrimination.

less similar

A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.

higher-order conditioning

A form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences.

operant conditioning

Skinner demonstrated that organisms tend to ______ those responses that are followed by favorable consequences.

repeat

Occurs when an event following a response increases an organism’s tendency to make that response.

Reinforcement

A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.

A Skinner Box

Operant responses, such as lever pressing and disk pecking, are said to be ______ rather than ______.

emitted; elicited

The circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers.

Reinforcement contingencies

The key dependent variable in most research on operant conditioning is the __________.

subjects’ response rate over time.

Creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time.

cumulative recorder

In a cumulative recorder, A rapid response rate produces a _____ slope, whereas a slow response rate produces a _____ slope.

steep; shallow

Operant responses are typically established through a gradual process called _____.

Shaping

The reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response.

Shaping

Shaping is necessary when ________.

An organism does not, on its own, emit the desired response.

In operant conditioning, ________ refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by reinforcement.

extinction

Extinction begins in operant conditioning whenever ______________.

previously available reinforcement is stopped.

Occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer for it has been terminated.

Resistance to extinction

The greater the resistance to extinction, the ______ the responding will continue.

longer

In other words, it appears that the result of extinction is that organisms learn not to make a specific response _______, as opposed to any and all contexts.

in a specific context

If acquisition of lever-pressing occurred in one context and subsequent extinction in another context, responding recovered when _________.

the rats were returned to the original context or placed in a new, neutral context.

When a response is ________ in the presence of a particular stimulus, that stimulus ________.

consistently followed by a reinforcer; comes to serve as a “signal” indicating that the response is likely to lead to a reinforcer.

Cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.

Discriminative stimuli

“For example, birds learn that hunting for worms is likely to be reinforced after a rain.”

This is an example of what?

Discriminitive Stimuli

Reactions to a discriminative stimulus are governed by the processes of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination, just like reactions to a CS in classical conditioning. For instance, envision a cat that gets excited whenever it hears the sound of a can opener because that sound has become a discriminative stimulus signaling a good chance of its getting fed. If the cat also responded to the sound of a new kitchen appliance (say a blender), this response would represent generalization—responding to a new stimulus as if it were the original. Discrimination would occur if the cat learned to respond only to the can opener and not to the blender.

Although it is convenient to equate reinforcement with reward and the experience of pleasure, strict behaviorists object to this practice. Why?

Because the experience of pleasure is an unobservable event that takes place within an organism.

Thus, the central process in reinforcement is __________.

the strengthening of a response tendency.

Reinforcement is therefore defined ______, in terms of its _______.

after the fact; effect on behavior

Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.

Primary reinforcers

In humans, primary reinforcers include what?

food, water, warmth, sex, and perhaps affection expressed through hugging and close bodily contact.

Events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.

Secondary, or conditioned, reinforcers

Examples of common secondary reinforcers in humans include what?

money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise, and applause.

In operant conditioning, a favorable outcome is much more likely to strengthen a response if the outcome ______.

follows immediately

A specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time.

A schedule of reinforcement

Occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.

Continuous reinforcement

Occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time

Intermittent reinforcement

Intermittent reinforcement makes a response more resistant to _________ than continuous reinforcement does.

extinction

Ratio schedules require the organism to make the designated response _________ to gain each reinforcer.

a certain number of times

In a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule, the reinforcer is given after a _________.

fixed number of nonreinforced responses

What type of reinforcement is this? “A rat is reinforced for every tenth lever press”

Fixed Ratio

What type of reinforcement is this? “A rat is reinforced for every tenth lever press on the average.”

Variable Ratio

In a variable-ratio (VR) schedule, the reinforcer is given _________

after a variable number of nonreinforced responses.

In a fixed-interval (FI) schedule, the reinforcer is given for _________.

the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed

What type of reinforcement is this? “A rat is reinforced for the first lever press after a 2-minute interval has elapsed and then must wait 2 minutes before being able to earn the next reinforcement.”

Fixed Interval schedule

In a variable-interval (VI) schedule, the reinforcer is given ________. The interval length ______.

for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed; varies around a predetermined average

What type of reinforcement is this? “A rat is reinforced for the first lever press after a 1-minute interval has elapsed, but the following intervals are 3 minutes, 2 minutes, 4 minutes, and so on—with an average length of 2 minutes. “

Variable Interval schedule

ratio schedules tend to produce ____ rapid responding than interval schedules do.(more/less)

more

Variable schedules tend to generate _______ response rates and ______ resistance to extinction than their fixed counterparts do. (steadier/less steady) (lesser/greater)

steadier; greater

Positive reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by _____.

the presentation of a rewarding stimulus

Good grades, paychecks, and promotions are examples of what type of reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement

negative reinforcement occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed _______.

by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus

A shock being turned off for a short period of time when a lever is pressed by an animal in a skinner box is an example of what type of reinforcement?

Negative reinforcement

Everyday human behavior is regulated extensively by ______. (e.g. cleaning your house to get rid of a mess.)

negative reinforcement

In _______, an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation.

escape learning

If you were to leave a party where you were getting picked on by peers, you would be engaging in an ______.

escape response

In ________, an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring.

avoidance learning

If you were to quit going to parties because of your concern about being picked on by peers, you would be demonstrating _______.

avoidance learning

Reinforcement _____ an organism’s tendancy to make a certain response.

Strengthens

Punishments _____ an organism’s tendancy to make a response.

Weaken

Punishment occurs when an event following a response _______ the tendency to make that response.

weakens

Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby _______ a response.

strengthening