copy AP psychology Unit 0

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality and accuracy

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

falsifable

the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings can be reproduced.

case study

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

social desirability bias

bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

population

all those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn.

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

regression towards the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

single-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

cofounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

experimenter bias

bias that is caused by researchers unintentionally influencing results to confirm their own beliefs

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

quantitative research

research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

qualitative research

research that relies on what is seen in field or naturalistic settings more than on statistical data

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

percentile rank

the percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

meta-analysis

Statistical analysis combining results from multiple studies.

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other.

the conscious

aware of and responding to one's surroundings; awake. The small amount of mental activity we know about.

the subconscious

things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried

the unconscious

things we are unaware of and can not become aware of

id

the part of the unconscious personality that contains our needs, drives, instincts, and repressed material

philosphy

the investigation of truths and principles using human reason

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Wilhem Windut

credited with making psychology an independent science. Wundt investigated how sensations, images, and feelings combine to make up personal experience. With a process he called

objective introspection, subjects were asked to

measure and describe their own thoughts and mental processes. A student of Wundt, Edward Tichner expanded Wundt's original ideas into a

new perspective which be came known as structuralism.

Functionalism

William James later wrote The Principles of Psychology and discussed Functionalism. Unlike Structuralism, which focuses on perceptions, his idea was that we should investigate the function, or purpose of consciousness. To James, the key was to find out howthe mind functions to help us adapt, live, work, play, and survive

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Gestalt Psychology

Max Wertheimer objected to Structuralism and its idea that the mind could be understood by breaking down sensations into their smallest units.

His contribution to the field is Gestalt psychology

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

conditioning

the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses (pavlov)

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).