(2) Unit 1 - Behaviourist Assumption Two - Behaviour learnt through conditioning

How many types of conditioning are there?

Two - classical and operant.

What does classical conditioning involve?

Learning through association. New behaviours are learnt through associations; associating two things together to give the same response to both.

What is an ‘unconditioned stimulus’ (UCS)?

An environmental stimulus (provocation) that causes an automatic response, e.g. chopping an onion (stimulus) causes you to cry.

What is an ‘unconditioned response’ (UCR)?

An automatic response (reaction) that occurs as a result of an unconditioned stimulus, e.g. crying (response) whilst you are chopping an onion.

What is a ‘neutral stimulus’ (NS)?

A stimulus that produces no specific response apart from focusing your attention, e.g. the knife used to chop the onions.

What is a ‘conditioned stimulus’ (CS)?

A previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with an unconditioned stimulus, e.g. the knife is associated with chopping onions.

What is a ‘conditioned response’ (CR)?

A learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral, e.g. you cry when you see a knife.

Who first identified this process of learning?

Pavlov through his work observing salivation in dogs. He suggested that classical conditioning involved three steps:

Before conditioning

Metronome (neutral stimulus)

Food (unconditioned stimulus) ——> salivation (unconditioned response)

During conditioning

Metronome (NS) + Food (UCS) —> salivation (unconditioned response)

After conditioning

Metronome (conditioned stimulus) ——> salivation (conditioned response)

What does operant conditioning involve?

Learning through reinforcement.

What does the term ‘reinforcement’ refer to?

Something that will increase the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again. Reinforcement can be positive or negative; both will increase the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.

How does ‘positive reinforcement’ work?

By increasing the likelihood of a desirable behaviour occurring again because you have been rewarded (received something pleasant). Skinner (1938) demonstrated that an animal can learn a specific behaviour if it is positively reinforced, shown through the him teaching rats to press a lever using food pellets as a reward each time the lever was pressed.

How does ‘negative reinforcement’ work?

By increasing the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again because you want to avoid something unpleasant. For example, you complete your homework to avoid detention.

What does the term ‘punishment’ refer to?

Where a person is reprimanded for an undesirable behaviour, therefore decreasing the chance that behaviour will happen again (opposite of reinforcement).

What does the term ‘positive punishment’ refer to?

Giving/receiving something unpleasant for an undesirable behaviour, decreasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.

What does ‘negative punishment’ refer to?

Taking away something unpleasant when an undesirable behaviour is preformed, decreasing the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.

What model suggests that relationships develop through conditioning?

The Reinforcement Affect Model.

It suggests that classical conditioning (learning by association) leads us to like people who are nearby when we feel good. Even if they were not involved in making us feel good, after a while we will associated them with good feelings such as that. Whenever we see them, we feel good.

It also suggests that operant conditioning (learning through reinforcement) leads us to like people who reward us. Rewards can include being friendly towards us, smiling and generally acting positively towards us. Being perceived as physically attractive can also be deemed rewarding.

How can this assumption be linked to the formation of a romantic relationship?

Reinforcement models of attraction state we are more likely to form relationships with people who reinforce us. This basic principle can be applied to a range of relationship types.

How could reinforcement forming relationships be explained?

If we receive reinforcement when we spend time with someone, this increases the chances of us repeating this behaviour (spending time with someone).

Being single or alone can be seen as a punishment when you’re not invited to events tailored to couples, making you feel lonely when people make negative or condescending comments.

Forming a relationship can act as a negative reinforcement as it may remove negative comments made about being single as well as feelings of loneliness.

What theory suggests that whether people feel positive or negative about their romantic relationship will depend on:

Their perception of what rewards they will receive from the relationship

Their perception of what costs they will incur as a result of being in a relationship

Their perception of what they deserve from the relationship

The probability that they could have a better relationship with someone else?

Social Exchange Theory. This suggests that we will have romantic relationships that maximise our rewards and minimise our costs.

What are some examples of rewards within a romantic relationship?

Physical attraction, having our own attitudes validated, having someone who will do things for us, and financial gain.

What are some examples of costs within a romantic relationship?

Time, financial costs and emotional turmoil.

What does Equity Theory suggest about these rewards and costs?

Walter and Walster suggest that people are not just out to get the most rewards and least costs; they are also concerned with equity in their relationships - where the rewards, costs and contributions they make are roughly equal to the rewards, costs and contributions of the other person. Equitable relationships are the happiest and most stable, while inequitable relationships result in one person over-benefitting and one under-benefitting.

Therefore, what do these theories emphasise?

The assumption that individuals learn to have relationships through reinforcement.