U.S. History - Exam 1:
Studied by 2 people
Knowt Play
Learn
Practice Test
Spaced Repetition
Match
Flashcards1/35
There's no tags or description
Looks like no tags are added yet.
Name | Mastery | Learn | Test | Matching | Spaced |
|---|
No study sessions yet.
36 Terms
The Iroquois (before and after European contact)
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Confederation of five nations: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca
Sixth nation (Tuscarora) added in 1722
Known as the Haudenosaunee (“People of the Longhouse”)
What it was (what happened?);
Pre-contact: Matrilineal society with communal longhouse living
Organized around consensus-based governance and seasonal agriculture
Post-contact: Engaged in diplomacy with Europeans, especially the British
Formed alliances through the Covenant Chain treaties
Maintained autonomy by playing European powers against each other
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Confederacy formed pre-contact (before 1450)
European contact and diplomacy: 1600s–1700s
Where it occurred;
Eastern Woodlands region
Present-day New York, Pennsylvania, and Great Lakes area
Why it occurred:
Confederacy formed to reduce intertribal warfare and strengthen defense
European arrival introduced new threats and trade opportunities
Iroquois adapted to protect sovereignty and influence colonial power dynamics
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?):
One of the most politically sophisticated Native alliances
Influenced British colonial policy and diplomacy
Retained matrilineal customs despite European patriarchy
Their governance model emphasized peace, consensus, and elder authority
Played a central role in shaping frontier relations and resisting assimilation
Christopher Columbus know year he landed in Bahamas
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Italian sailor and navigator from Genoa
Sponsored by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain
Backed by Spanish bankers and merchants
What it was (what happened?):
Sailed west seeking a sea route to Asia
Landed in the Bahamas, mistaking it for the Indies
Initiated sustained European contact with the Americas
Encountered and described the Taíno (Arawak) people
Returned to Spain with glowing reports to secure further voyages
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
First voyage: August–October 1492
Landed in the Bahamas: October 12, 1492
Subsequent voyages: 1493–1504
Where it occurred:
First landing: San Salvador (Bahamas)
Explored: Hispaniola, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, Central America
Never reached mainland North America or Asia
Why it occurred:
Spain sought direct access to Asian trade goods
Wanted to bypass Muslim-controlled land routes
Columbus believed sailing west would quickly reach Asia
Motivated by wealth, status, and religious mission
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?):
Sparked European exploration and colonization of the Americas
Led to the Columbian Exchange (plants, animals, diseases)
Caused massive demographic collapse among Native populations
Set precedent for conquest, slavery, and imperial competition
Changed global history—beginning of the Atlantic World
The Columbian Exchange
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Initiated by Christopher Columbus’s voyages (1492 onward)
Involved Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans
Spanish and Portuguese empires played major roles in early exchange
What it was (what happened?):
Widespread transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between the Old World and the New World
Included forced migration of enslaved Africans to the Americas
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Late 1400s until the mid 1600s.
Began in 1492 with Columbus’s first voyage
Where it occurred:
Across the Atlantic Ocean
Between Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
Why it occurred:
Triggered by European exploration and colonization
Desire for wealth, resources, and agricultural expansion
Need for labor in New World plantations
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).:
Transformed global agriculture, diets, and economies
Caused massive Native population decline due to disease
Introduced slavery as a transatlantic system
Created the foundation for the Atlantic World and global trade networks
Altered ecosystems and cultural practices on multiple continents
Bartolóme de las Casas
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Spanish priest
Became a vocal critic of Spanish colonial abuses
Advocated for Native rights and humane treatment
What it was (what happened?):
Witnessed brutal treatment of Indigenous peoples in the Americas
Renounced his own role in the encomienda system
Wrote accounts condemning Spanish cruelty (e.g. A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies)
Petitioned the Spanish Crown to reform colonial policies
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Active during the early to mid-1500s
Where it occurred:
Spanish colonies in the Caribbean and Central America
Advocated from Spain to influence imperial policy
Why it occurred:
Motivated by religious conviction and firsthand experience of colonial violence
Believed Indigenous peoples had souls and deserved protection
Sought to end forced labor and mass killings
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Early voice for human rights and moral accountability in empire-building
Treaty of Tordesillas
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Spain and Portugal
Drawn up by Pope Alexander VI
Signed by monarchs of both countries
What it was (what happened?):
Divided newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal
Created an imaginary line (Line of Demarcation) west of Cape Verde Islands
Spain got lands west of the line; Portugal got lands east
Aimed to prevent conflict over overseas expansion
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
1493-1494
Where it occurred:
Applied to territories in the Atlantic and the Americas
Affected colonization in South America, Africa, and Asia
Why it occurred:
Spain and Portugal were competing for control of new trade routes and territories
Both claimed rights to lands discovered by explorers
Needed a formal agreement to avoid war and maintain Catholic unity
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Lingering cultural and linguistic divisions in the Americas
Spanish-speaking vs. Portuguese-speaking regions
Gave Spain control over most of the Americas
Gave Portugal control over Brazil and parts of Africa and Asia
Shaped the colonial map of the Western Hemisphere
Set precedent for European powers dividing non-European lands without Native input
Hernán Cortés & Tenochtitlán
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Hernán Cortés: Spanish conquistador
Montezuma (Moctezuma): Aztec emperor
Aztec Empire: centered in Tenochtitlán
What it was (what happened?):
Cortés landed in Mexico and marched inland to Tenochtitlán
Formed alliances with rival Native groups (e.g. Tlaxcalans)
Entered the city and took Montezuma hostage
Fighting broke out → Spanish fled, regrouped, and returned
Siege of Tenochtitlán led to its fall and destruction
Aztec Empire collapsed under Spanish control
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Early 1500s
Where it occurred:
Central Mexico
Tenochtitlán = capital of the Aztec Empire
Present-day Mexico City
Why it occurred:
Spain sought wealth (gold) and territorial expansion
Cortés driven by ambition, glory, and conquest
Aztec enemies allied with Spanish to overthrow empire
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Marked the beginning of Spanish dominance in the Americas
Led to collapse of one of the most advanced Indigenous civilizations
Introduced European disease, warfare, and colonial rule
Set precedent for future conquests (e.g. Pizarro in Peru)
Tenochtitlán’s fall symbolized the violent transformation of the New World
Johannes Gutenberg
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
He was a German craftsman who invented the technique of printing with movable type
What it was (what happened?):
Invented the mechanical movable type printing press
Enabled mass production of books, especially the Bible
Revolutionized access to written knowledge across Europe
Helped spread religious and scientific ideas
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
1450s
Where it occurred:
Mainz, Germany
Impact spread across Europe
Why it occurred:
Demand for books and literacy was growing
Desire to spread religious texts and classical knowledge
Need for faster, cheaper book production
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Sparked the Printing Revolution
Accelerated the spread of the Protestant Reformation
Increased literacy and access to information
Helped unify and standardize languages
Laid foundation for modern mass communication
Martin Luther
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
German priest and professor of theology
Key figure in the Protestant Reformation
Challenged Catholic Church authority and practices
What it was (what happened?):
Posted 95 Theses criticizing Church corruption (esp. indulgences)
Targeted abuses like the sale of indulgences (forgiveness of sins for payment)
Urged believers to read the Bible themselves rather than rely on priests
Sparked widespread religious reform and division
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
1517
Where it occurred:
Wittenberg, Germany
Impact spread across Northern and Central Europe
Why it occurred:
Reaction to moral and financial corruption in the Catholic Church
Desire to restore spiritual integrity and personal access to scripture
Push for religious autonomy from Rome
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Initiated the Protestant Reformation
Led to the rise of new Protestant churches independent of Rome
Triggered over a century of religious and political conflict in Europe
Influenced religious diversity in colonial America
Empowered individual interpretation of scripture and challenged centralized religious authority
The Protestant Reformation
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Martin Luther (German priest)
Other reformers: John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli
Opposed the Catholic Church’s authority and practices
What it was (what happened?):
Religious movement challenging Catholic corruption and hierarchy
Began with Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses in 1517
Criticized sale of indulgences and Church worldliness
Promoted direct access to the Bible and salvation by faith alone
Led to formation of Protestant churches independent of Rome
Sparked religious and political upheaval across Europe
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
16th and 17th centuries
Where it occurred:
Originated in Germany (Wittenberg)
Spread across Northern and Western Europe
Why it occurred:
Reaction to Catholic Church abuses (e.g. indulgences, corruption)
Desire for religious reform and personal access to scripture
Political leaders sought independence from papal authority
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Shattered religious unity in Europe
Led to creation of Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican, and other Protestant denominations
Fueled centuries of religious conflict and persecution
Influenced colonization patterns and religious diversity in British America
Empowered literacy, individualism, and challenges to centralized authority
Joint-Stock Company
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Wealthy English investors
Early colonists and merchants
What it was (what happened?):
Business model where multiple investors pooled money to fund colonial ventures
Shared profits and risks from overseas exploration and settlement
Enabled large-scale funding without direct royal control
Used to finance colonies like Jamestown
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Early 1600s
Where it occurred:
England (investment and chartering)
North America (colonial settlements)
Why it occurred:
Crown lacked funds for direct colonization
Investors sought profit from land, trade, and resources
Allowed private enterprise to drive imperial expansion
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Enabled England’s first successful permanent colony (Jamestown)
Shifted colonization from royal to private initiative
Set precedent for capitalist investment in empire-building
Linked economic ambition with territorial expansion
Created early foundations for corporate influence in colonial development
Jamestown
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
English colonists funded by the Virginia Company
John Smith (leader and organizer)
Powhatan Confederacy (local Native group)
Pocahontas (mediator between cultures)
What it was (what happened?):
First permanent English settlement in North America
Settlers faced starvation, disease, and conflict with Natives
John Smith enforced discipline and trade with Powhatans
Tobacco cultivation (introduced by John Rolfe) saved the colony economically
Transitioned from survival to plantation economy
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Established in 1607
Where it occurred:
Chesapeake region
Present-day Virginia, along the James River
Why it occurred:
England sought wealth, land, and a foothold in the Americas
Virginia Company used joint-stock model to fund colonization
Strategic location for trade and defense
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
First successful English colony → model for future settlements
Introduced plantation agriculture and cash crop economy
Set precedent for Native conflict and land expansion
Birthplace of representative government (House of Burgesses, 1619)
Foundation of British colonial presence in North America
John Smith
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
English soldier, explorer, and colonial leader
Key figure in the survival and organization of Jamestown
Interacted with Powhatan and Pocahontas
What it was (what happened?):
Took charge of Jamestown during its early crisis
Imposed discipline and work requirements (“He who does not work shall not eat”)
Negotiated with Powhatan Confederacy for food and support
Injured in 1609 and returned to England, ending his direct role in the colony
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Early 1600s
Where it occurred:
Jamestown, Virginia
Chesapeake region
Why it occurred:
Jamestown settlers were unprepared for survival
Needed strong leadership to prevent collapse
Smith’s military background helped enforce order and secure resources
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Helped Jamestown survive its most vulnerable years
Established early diplomacy with Native groups
His leadership laid groundwork for permanent English settlement
His writings shaped English perceptions of the New World
Pocahontas
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Daughter of Powhatan, leader of the Powhatan Confederacy
Associated with Jamestown settlers, especially John Smith and John Rolfe
What it was (what happened?):
Acted as a cultural intermediary between Powhatans and English colonists
Allegedly saved John Smith’s life (possibly symbolic or political gesture)
Captured by English in 1613 during Anglo-Powhatan tensions
Converted to Christianity and married John Rolfe in 1614
Traveled to England in 1616 as a symbol of “civilized” Native alliance
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Early 1600s
Where it occurred:
Jamestown, Virginia
Chesapeake region
Why it occurred:
English sought peace and legitimacy through Native alliances
Powhatans used diplomacy to manage colonial threat
Pocahontas’s marriage helped ease tensions temporarily
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Symbol of early Native-English diplomacy
Her story was romanticized to justify colonization
Marriage marked brief peace between Powhatans and English
Indentured Servants
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Poor English and European laborers
Often young men and women seeking passage to the New World
Contracted to work for colonial landowners (e.g. tobacco planters)
What it was (what happened?):
Individuals agreed to work for 4–7 years in exchange for passage, food, and shelter
Lived under harsh conditions with limited rights
Many died before completing their contracts
After service, some received “freedom dues” (land, tools, clothing)
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
1600s - early 1700s
Where it occurred:
British North American colonies
Especially in the Southern colonies (Virginia, Maryland)
Also present in Middle colonies
Why it occurred:
Labor shortage in the colonies, especially for tobacco cultivation
England had surplus population and poverty
Colonists needed cheap labor before slavery became dominant
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Provided critical labor for early colonial economies
Preceded African slavery as the dominant labor system
Contributed to class tensions (e.g. Bacon’s Rebellion)
Eventually replaced by racial slavery as demand for permanent labor grew
Olaudah Equiano
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
African man kidnapped into slavery as a child
Survivor of the Middle Passage
Later purchased his freedom and became an abolitionist
What it was (what happened?):
Captured in West Africa and sold into slavery
Endured brutal conditions aboard slave ships
Worked in British colonies and eventually in England
Wrote a powerful firsthand account exposing the horrors of slavery
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Mid 1700s
Where it occurred:
Born in West Africa
Transported across the Atlantic (Middle Passage)
Lived and worked in the Caribbean, American colonies, and England
Why it occurred:
Part of the transatlantic slave trade system
Europeans demanded labor for plantations
Africans were forcibly taken and sold into slavery
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
His autobiography gave voice to enslaved Africans
Helped fuel the British abolitionist movement
Provided detailed, personal testimony of slavery’s brutality
Challenged pro-slavery arguments and humanized enslaved people
Influenced public opinion and policy in Britain
Triangle Trade (Transatlantic Slave Trade)
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
European merchants (especially British, Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch)
African rulers and traders
Enslaved Africans
American and Caribbean plantation owners
What it was (what happened?):
Three-part trade system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas
Europe sent manufactured goods (guns, textiles) to Africa
Africa supplied enslaved people to the Americas via the Middle Passage
Americas exported raw materials (sugar, tobacco, cotton) back to Europe
Created a cycle of profit, exploitation, and forced migration
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Late 1500s - early 1800s
Where it occurred:
Across the Atlantic Ocean
Europe → West Africa → Americas (especially Caribbean and Southern colonies)
Why it occurred:
European demand for labor on plantations
African kingdoms traded captives for European goods
Colonies needed cheap, permanent labor for cash crops
Profitable system for all parties except the enslaved
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Resulted in the forced migration of over 12 million Africans
Created racialized slavery and entrenched white supremacy
Fueled economic growth in Europe and colonial wealth
Devastated African societies and cultures
Shaped demographic, cultural, and political foundations of the Atlantic World
The Puritans
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
English Protestants seeking to “purify” the Church of England
Influenced by Calvinist theology
Key figures: John Winthrop, William Bradford
Settled primarily in New England (e.g. Massachusetts Bay Colony)
What it was (what happened?):
Faced persecution in England for rejecting Anglican rituals
Migrated to America to build a “godly” society
Established tightly knit, religiously governed communities
Emphasized moral discipline, education, and civic responsibility
Created congregational churches and town-based governance
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Early 1600s
Where it occurred:
Originated in England
Settled in New England colonies, especially Massachusetts, Connecticut
Why it occurred:
Sought religious freedom and reform outside the Church of England
Desired to create a “city upon a hill” as a model Christian society
Escaped persecution and political repression in England
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Shaped New England’s religious, political, and educational institutions
Influenced American values: work ethic, literacy, civic duty
Their strict moral codes led to internal dissent (e.g. Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson)
Played a central role in early colonial governance and community structure
Legacy of religious idealism and intolerance shaped American cultural debates
The founding and settlement of Pennsylvania
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Founded by William Penn, an English Quaker
Settled by Quakers, Germans, Scots-Irish, and other religious minorities
Supported by King Charles II (granted Penn the land charter)
What it was (what happened?):
Established as a “holy experiment” in religious freedom and peaceful coexistence
Penn promoted fair treatment of Native peoples and religious tolerance
Created a representative government and guaranteed liberty of conscience
Philadelphia became a major colonial city and port
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Early 1680s
Where it occurred:
Middle Colonies
Present-day Pennsylvania, with Philadelphia as its center
Why it occurred:
Penn sought refuge for Quakers and other persecuted groups
Wanted to prove that religious freedom and good governance could coexist
King Charles II repaid a debt to Penn’s father by granting the land
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Became a model of religious tolerance and pluralism in colonial America
Attracted diverse settlers and fostered peaceful relations with Native tribes (initially)
Contributed to the development of democratic principles and civil liberties
Philadelphia emerged as a hub of commerce, culture, and revolutionary thought
Pennsylvania’s founding ideals influenced the broader American identity
The Salem Witch Trials
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Puritan settlers in Salem, Massachusetts
Accused individuals (mostly women, some men)
Local magistrates and ministers
Key figures: Tituba (enslaved woman), Cotton Mather (minister), Governor William Phips
What it was (what happened?):
Series of hearings and prosecutions for alleged witchcraft
Began with strange behavior among young girls and accusations against marginalized women
Spiraled into mass hysteria and dozens of arrests
Spectral evidence (visions, dreams) used in trials
20 people executed, hundreds imprisoned
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Early 1690s
Where it occurred:
Salem Village and Salem Town, Massachusetts Bay Colony
Why it occurred:
Religious extremism and fear of the Devil
Social tensions, economic stress, and local rivalries
Puritan belief in supernatural forces and moral purity
Political instability and recent trauma from Native wars
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Exposed dangers of mass hysteria and judicial injustice
Led to skepticism about spectral evidence and reform in legal standards
Became a symbol of religious intolerance and scapegoating
Influenced American views on civil liberties and due process
Bacon's Rebellion
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Nathaniel Bacon: young English settler and member of Virginia’s elite
Governor William Berkeley: colonial governor of Virginia
Frontier settlers, indentured servants, and enslaved people
Native American tribes (targeted during raids)
What it was (what happened?):
Armed uprising in 1676 by frontier settlers against colonial government
Bacon and followers demanded protection from Native raids and access to western lands
Attacked Native villages and eventually burned Jamestown
Rebellion collapsed after Bacon’s death from dysentery
Harsh retaliation followed, including executions of rebels
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Mid 1670s
Where it occurred:
Virginia Colony
Why it occurred:
Tensions over land, Native relations, and class inequality
Frontier settlers felt ignored by elite-controlled government
Economic hardship and lack of opportunity for freed indentured servants
Berkeley’s refusal to authorize attacks on Native groups angered settlers
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Exposed deep class divisions in colonial society
Alarmed elites about potential uprisings by poor whites and enslaved Africans
Accelerated shift from indentured servitude to racial slavery
Revealed instability of colonial governance and frontier expansion
Colonial Militias
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Male settlers in British North American colonies
Local communities organized their own defense forces
Often led by elected or appointed officers
Associated with early conflicts like King Philip’s War and the French and Indian War
What it was (what happened?):
Militias were civilian-based military units formed for local defense
Members were part-time soldiers, not professional troops
Responded to threats from Native groups, rival European powers, and internal unrest
Played key roles in frontier warfare and early revolutionary resistance
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
1600s - 1700s
Where it occurred:
All thirteen colonies, especially in frontier and contested regions
New England, Virginia, and the Carolinas had frequent militia mobilizations
Why it occurred:
British government provided limited military support
Colonists needed self-defense against Native resistance and foreign threats
Militia service was often required by law for adult men
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Fostered a tradition of local self-defense and civic duty
Created military experience among colonists before the American Revolution
Contributed to colonial identity and resistance to British control
Played a major role in early Revolutionary battles (e.g. Lexington and Concord)
The Great Awakening
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Evangelical ministers like George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, and Gilbert Tennent
Protestant congregations across British North America
Especially influential among Puritans, Baptists, and Presbyterians
What it was (what happened?):
A widespread religious revival movement emphasizing emotional conversion and personal faith
Preachers traveled and held large outdoor sermons (“revivals”)
Challenged traditional church authority and promoted spiritual equality
Encouraged introspection, repentance, and a “new birth” experience
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Early 1700s - mid 18th century
Where it occurred:
British North American colonies
Especially strong in New England, the Middle Colonies, and parts of the South
Why it occurred:
Reaction to declining religious enthusiasm and rigid church structures
Influenced by Enlightenment ideas of individualism and questioning authority
Desire for more personal, emotional religious experience
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Broadened religious participation across class, race, and gender lines
Weakened established churches and promoted denominational diversity
Fostered ideas of spiritual equality that later influenced democratic and revolutionary thought
Encouraged the founding of new colleges (e.g. Princeton, Dartmouth)
Helped shape American identity around personal liberty and moral reform
The Enlightenment
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
European philosophers and thinkers: John Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau
Influenced colonial leaders and revolutionaries: Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson
What it was (what happened?):
Intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, and individual rights
Challenged traditional authority, monarchy, and religious dogma
Promoted ideas of liberty, equality, and government by consent
Encouraged education, secularism, and progress
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Late 1600s - 1700s
Where it occurred:
Originated in Europe (especially France, England, and Germany)
Spread to British North America, influencing colonial thought
Why it occurred:
Reaction to centuries of religious conflict and absolutist rule
Inspired by Scientific Revolution and humanist traditions
Desire to improve society through rational inquiry and reform
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Shaped foundational ideas of the American Revolution and U.S. Constitution
Encouraged questioning of authority and pursuit of democratic governance
Influenced movements for religious tolerance, abolition, and education
Provided ideological framework for modern liberal democracies
French and Indian War
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
British colonists and British regular troops
French colonists and allied Native American tribes
Key figures: George Washington (early British officer), General Edward Braddock, William Pitt (British Prime Minister)
What it was (what happened?):
Conflict between Britain and France over control of North American territory
Sparked by disputes in the Ohio River Valley
Native tribes allied with both sides, though most supported the French
Included major battles at Fort Duquesne, Quebec, and Montreal
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Mid 1700s
Where it occurred:
Primarily in the Ohio River Valley, Great Lakes region, and Canada
Why it occurred:
Competition for land, trade routes, and imperial dominance in North America
British colonists wanted to expand westward into French-claimed territory
Long-standing rivalry between Britain and France
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Britain gained control of Canada and all French territory east of the Mississippi
France lost most of its North American holdings
Massive war debt led Britain to tax colonies (Stamp Act, Sugar Act)
Set stage for colonial resentment and the American Revolution
Altered Native alliances and increased tensions on the frontier
The Treaty of Paris 1763
Who it was or Who was associated with it:
Signed by Great Britain, France, and Spain
Ended the French and Indian War (North American theater of the Seven Years’ War)
Negotiated by diplomats from all three empires
What it was (what happened?):
Peace agreement that redrew imperial boundaries in North America
France ceded Canada and all territory east of the Mississippi River to Britain
Spain ceded Florida to Britain but received Louisiana from France
France retained some Caribbean islands and trading posts in India
When it occurred (approximate years are fine. i.e. “early 1700s,” “late 18th century”):
Signed in 1763
Where it occurred:
Negotiated in Paris, France
Why it occurred:
Britain’s military success in the Seven Years’ War
Desire to formalize territorial changes and end hostilities
European powers sought to rebalance colonial holdings
Why it was/is significant (What did it result in? What impact did it/they have? What did it lead to?).
Marked the end of French colonial power in mainland North America
Britain emerged as the dominant imperial power in the Atlantic World
Massive war debt led Britain to tax American colonies (Stamp Act, Sugar Act)
Sparked colonial resentment and laid groundwork for the American Revolution
Altered Native alliances and increased tensions on the western frontier
Human origins, physical adaptations, and early migration
Humans evolved in East Africa; Homo sapiens emerged ~300,000 years ago
Physical adaptations: bipedalism, larger brains, tool use, skin pigmentation
Migrated globally via land bridges and coastal routes (~100,000–15,000 years ago)
Adapted to diverse climates and environments
Migration explains global genetic diversity and shared ancestry
Native Americans before European contact (not the tribe names, but what enabled some to have a thriving civilization? Was there diversity?)
Thriving civilizations developed due to agriculture, especially maize cultivation
Built complex societies with cities, trade networks, and political systems
Adapted to diverse environments: forests, deserts, plains, coasts
Practiced engineering, astronomy, irrigation, and architecture
Enormous cultural diversity: languages, religions, economies, and social structures
No single “Native American” identity — hundreds of distinct cultures
Eurasian trade systems (between Europe and Asia)
Connected Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, India, and China
Key routes: Silk Road, Indian Ocean trade, Trans-Saharan routes
Traded goods: silk, spices, tea, porcelain, textiles, precious metals
Enabled by caravan networks, maritime technology, and empires (e.g. Mongols, Ottomans)
Facilitated cultural exchange, religious diffusion, and technological transfer
Created early forms of globalization and interdependence
Locations of Europe, Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, England, Africa, and the 13 original British colonies and their regions (New England, Middle, and South)
Which Europeans sailed west to the Americas and why, where did they colonized, how did they colonize, who funded their efforts, and what were their relations with Native Americans and Africans?
Who sailed west & why:
Spain, Portugal, England, France, Netherlands
Sought wealth (gold, silver), trade routes, land, and to spread Christianity
Where they colonized:
Spain: Caribbean, Central & South America
Portugal: Brazil
England: Eastern North America (13 colonies)
France: Canada, Mississippi River Valley
Netherlands: New York area (New Netherland)
How they colonized:
Conquest, settlement, missionary work, trade posts
Used military force, alliances, and enslavement systems (e.g. encomienda)
Who funded them:
Monarchs (e.g. Spanish Crown, English Crown)
Joint-stock companies (e.g. Virginia Company)
Private investors and religious orders
Relations with Native Americans & Africans:
Native relations: ranged from alliances to violent conquest and displacement
African relations: rise of transatlantic slave trade, forced labor in colonies
Colonization led to disease, warfare, and cultural disruption for Native peoples
Similarities and differences in the ways the Spaniards, French, and British colonized North America.
Similarities:
All sought wealth, territory, and conversion of Native peoples
Used Native labor, formed alliances, and engaged in conflict
Colonization led to cultural disruption, disease, and land loss for Indigenous groups
Differences:
Spanish:
Focused on conquest and resource extraction (gold/silver)
Used encomienda system and missions
Colonized Florida, Southwest, Mexico, Central/South America
Relations: violent conquest, forced conversion, intermarriage
French:
Focused on fur trade and alliances with Native tribes
Colonized Canada, Great Lakes, Mississippi River Valley
Relations: generally cooperative, fewer settlers, missionary work
British:
Focused on permanent settlement, agriculture, and land ownership
Colonized Atlantic coast (13 colonies)
Relations: initial trade, then conflict and displacement
More families, self-government, and diverse economies
The importance of tobacco to Great Britain
Became the most lucrative cash crop in British America, especially Virginia
Fueled economic growth and transatlantic trade
Shipped in massive quantities to Britain (e.g. 500,000 lbs/year by 1627)
Supported mercantilism: colonies produced raw goods, Britain profited
Encouraged land expansion, enslavement, and Native displacement
Helped stabilize early colonies and tied them tightly to British markets
The major differences between Protestantism and Catholicism
Authority:
Catholicism: Scripture plus tradition and Church authority (Pope, Magisterium)
Protestantism: Sola Scriptura — Bible alone is the ultimate authority
Salvation:
Catholicism: Faith plus good works and sacraments
Protestantism: Faith alone (sola fide) through grace alone
Church Leadership:
Catholicism: Hierarchical, led by the Pope
Protestantism: No central authority; many denominations
Be able to compare and contrast the three colonial regions' societies, economies, and demographics
New England Colonies
Society: Close-knit, religious (Puritan), town-centered
Economy: Small farms, fishing, shipbuilding, trade
Demographics: Mostly English, families, low diversity
Middle Colonies
Society: Diverse, tolerant, urban-rural mix
Economy: Grain farming, trade, crafts, mining
Demographics: Mixed European origins (English, Dutch, German), religious pluralism
Southern Colonies
Society: Hierarchical, plantation elite vs. poor farmers
Economy: Cash crops (tobacco, rice, indigo), slavery-based
Demographics: High African population (enslaved), fewer towns, dispersed settlements
The origins of slavery in British America (which groups of laborers first used, why were Africans depended on for labor, all portions of the triangle trade, methods of dehumanization, justifications for slavery in British-America)
Early labor groups:
First used indentured servants (mostly poor Europeans)
Also enslaved Native Americans, but resistance and escape made it unsustainable
Why Africans were used:
Africans were resistant to European diseases
Had agricultural skills (e.g. rice cultivation)
Easier to control and identify due to racial difference
Slave status became hereditary, ensuring permanent labor force
Triangle Trade:
Europe → Africa: guns, textiles, alcohol
Africa → Americas: enslaved Africans (Middle Passage)
Americas → Europe: sugar, tobacco, cotton, rum
Methods of dehumanization:
Brutal transport (Middle Passage), branding, stripping of identity
Legal codes defined enslaved people as property, not persons
Families separated, languages suppressed, forced labor enforced by violence
Justifications used:
Claimed Africans were “uncivilized” and needed Christianization
Economic necessity for plantation profits
Racial ideologies framed slavery as “natural” and divinely sanctioned
Locations of the 13 Original Colonies
