Bio Exam 2025

Catabolic Metabolism Pathway

-releases energy

-large to small molecules

-cellular respiration

Both ADP and ATP

-nitrogen base (adenosine)

-5 carbon sugar

-phosphate group

Light dependent reactions

captures light energy in thylakoid membrane

Light independent reactions

builds glucose in stroma (calvin cycle)

Colors chlorophyll absorbs

red, purple, blue

Color chlorophyll reflects

green

Electron carrier

compound that can accept high-energy electrons and transfers them to where energy is needed in the cell

NAD+, FAD, NADP+

ATP synthase

creates ATP by using H+

Light Dependent Reactants

-H2O

-NADP+ (low energy)
-ADP (low energy)

Light Dependent Products

oxygen, NADPH, ATP

Robert Hooke

observed first cells in slice of cork and came up with the term

Cell Theory

1. All things are made of cells

2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in all living things

3. All need cells come from pre-existing cells

Plasma Membrane

outer part of cell that lets things in and out (all cells have it)

Region of DNA

where DNA is stored (all cells have this)

Cytoplasm

jellylike mixture that all cells have

Phospholipid bilayer

part of plasma membrane

-head is polar and hydrophilic

-tail is non polar and hydrophobic

Prokaryotes

ex (bacteria and archea)

-small and simple/unicellular

-has nucleoid for DNA

Eukaryotes

-protists

-larger and complex

-unicellular or multicellular

-Nucleus is where DNA is

Nuclear pore

how DNA snd other molecules enter and exit

nucleoplasm

like cytoplasm, but inside nucleus (where DNA is)

Nucleus function

stores and protects DNA and allows access to it

Cytoskeleton

-protein that provides structure and support for cell

-provides transport within cell

lysosomes

sacks within cells that break down nutrients and waste

Vacuoles

water storage (plant cells only)

Vesicles

sacks that store and transport materials

Ribosomes

makes proteins and all cells have it

Rough endoplasmic Reticulum

makes proteins/final product

Smooth endoplasmic Reticulum

makes lipids

Golgi Bodies

modify, sort, and package proteins for transport inside and outside the cell

Chloroplast

take solar energy and covert it to chemical energy (photosynthesis for plants)

Mitochondria

-powerhouse of cell

-convert chemical energy to useable energy for the cell

Cell wall

shapes, supports, and protects plant cells

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

makes lipids

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

makes proteins

Vesicles

transport cellular components and storage

Lysosomes

have enzymes that breakdown macromolecules and warn out cell parts

Centrioles

help with cell division

Nucleoid

prokaryotic cell-coil of DNA floating in cytoplasm 

Prokaryotic cells

-smaller and simple

-unicellular

-nucleiod for DNA

Ex: bacteria and archea

Eukaryotic Cell

-larger and complex

-unicellular or multicellular

-has nucleus

-membrane bound organelle

Ex: protists/”you”

Phospholipid Bilayer

makes up cell membrane

-head is polar and hydrophilic

-tail is nonpolar and hydrophobic

Passive transport

-no energy needed (with the current)

-high to low concentration

Active Transport

-energy needed (against current)

-low to high concentration

Nonpolar and small (O2 and CO2)

pass through without help slower

Polar, large, has charge (amino acids and ions)

passes through with help faster

Diffusion

-high to low
-passive transport

-phospholipid membrane

facilitated diffusion

-high to low

-passive transport

-through protein channel/carrier proteins

Osmosis

water crossing cell membrane

-high to low

-passive transport

-helped by Aqua Porin

Molecular transport

-low to high concentration (active)

-through a protein channel

Endocytosis

-active transport

-moving into cell

-vesicle is created

Three Types of Passive Transport

Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, Osmosis

Three Types of Active Transport

Molecular Transport, Endocytosis, Exocytosis

Exocytosis

-active transport

-moving out of cell

-vesicle released

Hypertonic Osmosis

high solute outside cell (water out and cell shrinks)

Hypotonic Osmosis

low solute outside cell (water goes in and cell swells)

Isotonic Osmosis

equal inside and out (no movement)

Organelles all cells have in common

cell membrane, region for DNA, cytoplasm, ribosomes

inner membrane

inner layer of outside of chloroplast

outer membrane

outer layer of outside of chloroplast

stroma

liquid filling of chloroplast 

granum

stack of thylakoids inside chloroplast

thykaloid

round green stacked tablets inside chloroplast

Atomic number =

number of protons

Determines charge of an atom and creates ions

electrons (relative to protons)

Change atomic mass/creates isotopes

neutrons

atomic number =

protons

neutrons =

mass number - protons

electrons =

protons

Little number on periodic table

Mass number (changed by neutrons)

Big number

atomic number/protons

Non-polar sharing

even/equal sharing of electrons

Polar sharing

uneven/unequal sharing of electrons

S- when

it has electrons

hydrophilic

things that LOVE water/can dissolve in it (polar)

hydrophobic

things that FEAR water/cannot be dissolved in it (nonpolar)

Cohesion

attraction between molecules of same substance and creates surface tension (water sticking to itself)

Adhesion

attraction between different substances and creates capillary (water sticking to something else)

high specific heat means

water is slow to change temperature

Carbohydrates monomer

monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose

Carbohydrates polymer

polysaccharides: starch (long term plant energy), cellulose (plant structure/fiber), and glycogen (short term animal energy)

Lipids Monomer

fatty acid chains: hydrocarbon tail and carboxyl head

Lipids Polymer

triglycerides-3 fatty acids chains (long term energy) and phospholipids (makes up cell membranes)

Proteins Monomer

amino acids (20 of them)

Proteins polymers

polypeptides (which fold to become proteins)

Ex: enzymes, antibodies, cytoskeleton, muscle fibers

Nucleic Acids Monomer

nucleotides

Nucleic Acids Polymer

DNA (genetic info)

RNA (instructions to make proteins)

Enzymes

proteins that are reused, need a specific substrate to work, and speed up a chemical reaction by lowering activation energy

Ex: sucrase, amylase, lactase

Substrate

the reactant an enzyme acts on

Active Site

region where substrate binds to enzyme

Activation Energy

energy required to bring reactants to their breaking point

What happens when there the concentration of a substrate is higher?

faster reaction rate until all enzymes are saturated with substrate

Why is there a max when substrate is used?

-as its used, less is available so eventually reaction can’t continue

-enzymes can’t process all of the substrate present

Temperature effect on enzymes

enzymes need certain temperatures to work best or they will denature/unfold which makes them lose their functions

pH that enzymes work best at:

6-8 (near neutral) or else they will denature

autotrophs

makes their own food from solar or chemical energy (producers)

heterotrophs

get their food from a source outside of themselves (consumers)

Chemotrophs

use chemical energy to produce their food (bacteria)

Phototrophs

use light/solar energy to produce their food (plants)

Scavengers

eat dead carcasses and animals

Decomposers

break down food through chemical process/turns organic matter into detritus