Commercial Pilot Theory - Block 1 Exam

Class E Airspace

-surface: dashed magenta

-700ft AGL: magenta vignette

-1,200ft AGL: blue vignette

-14,500ft MSL: blue zipper & outside blue vignette/gradient goes outward

Wx mins:

-below 10,000 MSL: 3sm, 1,5,2

-above 10,000 MSL: 5sm, 1,1,1 (sm)

Requirements:

-ADSB out: at/above 10,000 MSL

Class G Airspace

no starting point/fills in gaps up to overlying Class E

Wx mins:

surface-1,200 AGL:

--Day: 1sm & clear of clouds

--Night: 3sm & 1,5,2

-1,200 AGL-10,000 MSL:

--Day: 1sm & 1,5,2

--Night: 3sm & 1,5,2

-10,000 MSL +:

--5sm & 1,1,1

Class A Airspace

18,000ft MSL - 60,000ft MSL

-IFR

- 29.92 altimeter

-not depicted on sectional

Class B Airspace

surface to 10,000ft MSL (sometimes 8,000)

-solid blue rings

-tiered shape

-mode c veil: 30 nm ring

Wx mins:

- 3 sm visibility

-clear of clouds

Requirements:

-mode c transponder

-ADSB out

-2 way radio

-private pilot or student w/ endorsement

***Must receive clearance***

Class C Airspace

surface to 4,000ft AGL

-solid magenta rings

-tiered shape

- 5nm - 10 nm

Wx mins:

- 3sm visibility

- 1,000 above, 500 below, 2,000 horizontal

Requirements:

-mode c transponder

-ADSB out

-2 way radio

-callsign = cleared

Class D Airspace

surface to 2,500ft AGL

-blue dashed ring

-cylinder shape

-4nm

Wx mins:

- 3sm visibility

- 1,000 above, 500 below, 2,000 horizontal

Requirements:

-2 way radio

Prohibited Area

-For reasons of national welfare and

security, flight is prohibited at all times within these designated areas.

-Examples include the White House

and other congressional buildings

Restricted Area

-Areas of hazardous activity to aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, and guided missiles.

-Operation within a restricted area depends upon whether the area is active or inactive.

-For planning purposes, these times can be found on the back of the appropriate sectional chart.

-Always contact the ATC faculty before entering a restricted area to determine if flight is permitted.

Military Operation Areas (MOAs)

- Contains nonhazardous military flight activity such as air combat maneuvers, air intercepts, and low altitude tactics.

- Information regarding times of activity and inactivity, altitudes affected, and the controlling agency can be found on the back of the appropriate sectional chart.

- Prior permission is not required to enter an active MOA, however, it is highly encouraged to avoid.

Warning Areas

- Contains hazardous activity (like a restricted area), however, because they extend outward from 3nm off the U.S. coast, the government does not have sole jurisdiction over the airspace.

- Contact the appropriate ATC facility to determine if the area is active.

- Can be found over domestic or international water.

Alert Areas

- Designated areas of high volume pilot training or an unusual type of aerial activity.

- Exercise extreme caution when operating within an alert area.

Controlled Firing Areas (CFAs)

- Contain hazardous activity to aircraft, however, when an aircraft approaches the area, a spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout person will signal to suspend firing activity.

- Not charted on sectionals since they do not cause aircraft to change flight path.

Military Training Routes

Used for military training aircraft to exceed 250 knots below 10,000' MSL.

- Routes are identified as VR (VFR) or IR (IFR) followed by a number.

- The route number will be 4 digits if no segments along the route are above 1,500' AGL and 3 digits if one or more segments are above 1,500' AGL.

Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR)

- A restriction on an area of airspace due to the movement of government VIPs, special events, natural disasters, or other unusual events.

- Must be on an IFR flight plan to enter (not for flight training purposes).

- Will be issued in an FDC Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)

- Pilot is responsible to be aware of TFRs in their proposed area of flight.

Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSAs)

- Located around some class D airports

- Intended to provide voluntary radar services and aircraft separation

National Security Areas

- Established at locations where there is a requirement for increased security and safety of ground facilities.

- Pilots are REQUESTED to voluntarily

avoid flying through these areas.

Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ)

- Surrounds the US and Canada almost exclusively over water to serve as a national defense boundary for aerial

incursions.

- Must be on an IFR or Defense VFR (DVFR) flight plan before crossing.

- Aircraft must have a transponder and maintain two-way radio contact with AT C .

Wildlife Areas/ Wilderness Areas/ National Parks

- Flight over these areas is requested to be avoided below 2,000' AGL unless specified differently.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Marine Areas

Operations below specified altitude violate NOAA regulations and are required to be avoided.

Washington D.C. Metropolitan Special Flight Rules Area:

Special Awareness Training is required for pilots to operate VFR within 60nm of the Washington, DC VOR.

How is a Special Flight Rules Area depicted?

A (SFRA) is depicted by a blue circle with squares.

FAR 91.9

- Mandates that no person may operate an aircraft

without complying with the operating limitations specified in

the approved Airplane Flight Manual.

- This regulation holds pilots accountable for completing a

weight and balance calculation and assessment for every flight.

Max. Ramp Weight

Maximum allowable weight while aircraft is on the ramp/taxing. (Arrow-2758)

Max. Takeoff Weight

Maximum weight allowable for the aircraft to takeoff. (Arrow-2750)

Max. Landing Weight

Maximum weight allowable for the aircraft to land. (Arrow-2750)

Max weight in baggage area

Arrow = 200

Standard Empty Weight

- Weight of a standard airplane including unusable fuel, full operating fluids, and full oil.

Basic Empty Weight

- Standard empty weight +/- the weight of optional equipment.

Useful Load

- The weight difference between Max. Ramp Weight and Basic Empty Weight.

- Tells us the total amount of weight that can be manipulated.

Payload

- Useful load minus fuel weight

.

- Wt of crew/pax, cargo, & bags.

Datum

the point from which all measurements are taken.

Datum on Cessna 172S

Firewall

Datum on Piper Arrow

Tip of spinner

Station

A location in the aircraft that is identified by a number designating its distance in inches from the datum.

Arm

The distance in inches from the datum to the C.G. Of an item

If the CG is on the line is it within limits?

Yes

Moment

The product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm. The force felt at that station.

• The amount of force required to cause a rotation.

• (Weight x Arm = Moment)

• Unit: Inch Pounds

Center of Gravity (C.G.)

The point at which an aircraft, or equipment, would balance if suspended.

- Its distance from the reference datum is found by:

• (Total moment / Total weight = CG)

• Unit: Inches

If an Arm is longer/further from the datum, what happens to the moment?

Larger / Further Arm = Larger Moment

What is the tail down force?

Loft created in the downward direction

What Increases as an effect of flying overweight?

Increases:

(1) Takeoff speed

- A/C needs more lift to get off ground than normal

(2) Takeoff ground roll

- Higher speeds require a longer roll

(3) Stall speed

- Maintaining a higher AOA throughout flight which is clothed to Critical AOA

(4) Approach speed

- Produce more lift & come in faster to offset weight

(5) Landing distance (harder to slow down, brake ineffectiveness)

What Decreases as an effect of flying overweight?

Decreases:

(1) Rate of climb

- Less excess thrust available

(2) Maximum altitude capability

- Unable to produce the same amount of lift at that altitude anymore

(3) Operational range

- fuel range decreases and the A/C requires more thrust to produce lift and so fuel burn increases

(4) Maneuverability and controllability - increased load

- Harder to toss a 50 pound weight than a 10 pound weight

Ways to produce lift

- Increased Thrust = Increased Airspeed

- Increase Surface Area = Larger wings = Fowler Flaps

- Higher AOA = Increase

Effects of an aft CG

(1) Violent stall characteristics

- A/C pitches up

(2) Most crucial on takeoff

(3) Increases performance/speed

- Low AOA in cruise

- Most streamlined airflow

- In straight and level flight it is actually a nose low attitude

(4) Decreases stability of aircraft

- Less moment

What is stability?

Likelihood of A/C to return to equilibrium

Effects of a Forward CG

(1) Decreases performance and controllability of aircraft

- Maintain Higher AOA

- Attitude of A/C is actually slightly nose high when strait and level

(2) Increases stall speed

- Closer to Critical AOA

(3) Decreases the ability to flare during landings

- Most crucial for landings

- Nose down so it is harder to pull up

(4) Increases stability

- Longer arm from CG to tail requires less control input from pilot.

- Longer Arm & Higher Moment

Service Ceiling

- Highest altitude the A/C can fly and still produce a 100fpm climb

Propeller

• The prop is a rotating airfoil that creates lift in the forward

direction - thrust.

- Like a wing but mounted vertically instead of horizontally.

• The engine turns the propeller.

Where is the highest pitch of the blade?

• The propeller itself is twisted so the blade angle changes from hub to tip.

• The highest pitch (AOA) is at the hub while the smallest pitch (AOA) is at the tip.

The amount of thrust produced depends on:

(1) The shape of the airfoil

(2) The angle of attack (AOA) of the propeller blade

(3) The revolutions per minute (rpm) of the engine.

Why is the "Twist" of the propeller (change in blade pitch) necessary?

- Because the prop travels at different speeds across the blade.

V=D*T

- The tips spin faster and so more lift is produced at the tips.

- Changing the blade AOA ensures even lift production across the entire blade.

What is chord line?

An imaginary straight line from the leading edge to the training edge of an airfoil

What is blade angle?

Angle between chord line and plane of rotation

- measured in degrees

What is relative wind?

- Relative wind is equal and opposite the flight path.

- Propeller relative wind direction is different for the descending blade and ascending blade.

What is AOA for a blade?

The angle in which the blade strikes the air is its AOA.

Camber of a blade

The blades are curved or cambered just like a wing, and

therefore, differences in pressure occur.

- Bernoulli's principle.

The air pressure on the engine side of the blade is higher than the atmospheric pressure.

- High seeks low and creates lift in the forward direction AKA thrust.

Fixed Pitch Prop

- The pitch of this propeller is set by the manufacturer and cannot be changed.

- It is most efficient at only one given airspeed/RPM combination.

- Used when low weight, simplicity, and low cost are needed.

Types of fix pitched props

2 Types:

(1) Climb: lower pitch (AOA) = less drag = higher RPM

- Increases takeoff and climb performance but worse at cruise.

(2) Cruise: higher pitch (AOA) = more drag = lower RPM

- Increases cruise efficiency but worse during takeoff and climbs.

- Higher pitch takes a bigger bite of air so it produces the same RPM felt at higher settings.

Fix Pitched Prop - RPM and Density Altitude

On a fixed-pitch prop, RPM is read from the tachometer and is controlled by the throttle which controls how much fuel/air is sent to the engine.

On a fixed pitch prop as altitude increases what happens to RPMs?

As altitude increases, RPM may decrease.

- Power output depends on air density.

- As altitude increases, density decreases (higher density altitude).

- Throttle must be increased as altitude increases to produce the same RPM as set at lower altitudes.

Adjustable-Pitch Propeller

- Pitch can be adjusted on the ground with the engine not running but cannot be adjusted in flight.

- Also referred to as a ground adjustable propeller.

- Capable of a range of pitch settings.

Constant Speed Propeller

- Pitch is automatically changed by a governor that maintains a constant set RPM despite variations in air load when the airplane is pitched up or down.

- More efficient than other propellers because it allows selection of the most efficient engine RPM for the given conditions.

Constant Speed Propeller - Controls

- An aircraft with a constant-speed propeller has two

controls: the throttle and the propeller control.

- The throttle controls power output (manifold pressure)

- The propeller control regulates prop/engine RPM (read from the tachometer).

If the prop blade angle is within the constant speed range and not against either pitch stop (it's limit) then....

A constant RPM is maintained

Manifold Pressure Gauge

Adjusting the throttle changes your power output which is

read from the manifold pressure gauge.

The gauge measures the pressure of the fuel-air mixture

inside the intake manifold.

- The device that delivers fuel/air mixture to the engine cylinders for combustion.

Operating the controls

When both manifold pressure and rpm need to be changed, avoid engine overstress by making power adjustments in the proper order:

- When power settings are being decreased, reduce manifold pressure before reducing rpm.

- When power settings are being increased, reverse the order—increase rpm first, then manifold pressure.

*Always keep the blue knob ahead of the black knob.*

As a general rule, the prop can always be left forward. When bringing it back is when you can get in trouble. •

What is over squaring?

When the RPM is greater than the MP

If the prop lever (blue knob) is Forward:

high RPM, low pitch (AOA)

- Used for takeoff and landing in the event of a go-around

If the prop lever (blue knob) is Aft:

low RPM, high pitch (AOA)

- Used during cruise

Relationship between RPM & Pitch

RPM & Pitch are always opposite

- Low pitch (AOA) = Less drag = Higher RPM

- High pitch (AOA) = More drag = Lower RPM

METO power:

• Maximum except takeoff power

• "25 Squared" = 25" MP, 2500 RPM

• KSU procedure used for noise abatement

• Reduce at 500' AGL

Pitch

The distance a spiral threaded object moves forward in one revolution.

- As a wood screw moves forward when turned in wood, a propeller (and the airplane it is attached to) moves forward when spun in the air.

Geometric pitch

The theoretical distance a propeller should advance in one revolution.

Effective pitch

The distance it actually advances

Slip

The difference between the geometric pitch of the propeller and its effective pitch.

Overspeed (A/C Pitches Down)

(1) Fly weights - out

(2) Pilot valve - up (speeder spring compresses)

(3) Oil flows - to hub

(4) Piston moves aft (by hydraulic pressure)

(5) Blade angle - high pitch (low RPM)

Underspeed (A/C Pitches Up)

(1) Flyweights - in

(2) Pilot valve - down (speeder spring expands)

(3) Oil flows - to sump

(4) Piston moves forward (lack of hydraulic pressure)

(5) Blade angle - low pitch (high RPM)

On Speed

???

Manually changing the prop lever.

• The cockpit control is connected to the governor control lever.

• The lever is attached to a threaded shaft.

• As the lever is moved, the threaded shaft turns and moves

up or down to increase or decrease compression on the speeder spring.

2 Propeller types approved in POH for the Arrows, does Kent use these props?

- Kent does not use the approved props in POH

- Kent has a Supplemental Type Certificate which allows you to use a part not approved by the manufacturer.

With a constant speed prop, if you lose oil pressure what is the result?

Loss of oil pressure results in high RPMs which is good.

Why is there a higher pressure below the wing?

- There is more curvature above the wing (Upper camber) compared to below the wing (lower camber) which causes a greater pressure drop than below.

Small Aircraft Retraction Systems

As the speed of a light aircraft increases, there reaches a point where the parasite drag created by the landing gear in the wind is greater than the induced drag caused by the added weight of a retractable landing gear system.

Types of drag

Parasite drag and induced drag

Parasite Drag Types

1) Form Drag

2) Interference Drag

3) Skin Friction

4) Leakage

What is induced drag?

The rearward retarding force caused by the wings creating lift.

The Piper Arrow landing gear

- Hydraulically actuated by an electrically powered reversible pump.

- The electric pump is controlled by a selector switch (gear handle). Shaped like a tire.

When the gear handle is moved to the down position...

- A switch is activated that turns on a reversible electric motor pump to pump fluid in the gear-down lines and gear-down side of the actuator.

- While hydraulic fluid is pumped to extend the gear, fluid from the upside of the actuators returns to the reservoir.

- *** When the gear reach the down and locked position, each wheel contacts a down-microswitch which shuts off the pump.

When the gear handle is moved to the up position...

- Current is sent to the electric motor which drives the hydraulic gear pump in the opposite direction causing fluid to be pumped to the gear-up side of the actuators.

- As the cylinders begin to move, the pistons release the mechanical down locks that hold the gear rigid for ground operations.

- Fluid from the gear-down side of the

actuators returns to the reservoir.

- *** When the three gears are fully retracted, pressure builds in the system, and a pressure switch is opened that cuts power to the electric pump motor.

- The gear are held in the retracted position with hydraulic pressure. If pressure declines, the pressure switch closes to run the pump and raise the pressure until the pressure switch opens again.

Squat Switch (Safety Switch)

- This is a switch positioned to open and close depending on the extension or compression of the main landing gear strut to prevent the gear from being retracted while the aircraft is on the ground.

- On the ground, the landing gear strut compresses, which opens the squat switch circuit and electrically disconnects the pump from the system.

- On takeoff, the landing gear strut extends. The safety switch closes and allows current to flow in the safety circuit. This electrically connects the pump and permits the gear to be raised.

Landing Gear Position Indicator

• 3 illuminated green lights: gear down and locked

• All lights out: gear is up and locked

• Red WARNING GEAR UNSAFE (located at top of instrument panel): illuminates when...

- gear is in transit

- not in the full up position

- not in the locked down position

Induced drag caused by landing gear

- Retractable gear on A/C weighs more than a fixed landing gear

- Increased weight requires more lift

- more lift produced causes more induced drag

9 Microswitches

"Pfanners Song"

(1-3) 3 for up on each wheel

(4-6) 3 for down on each wheel

(7) 1 keeping gear from coming up on the ground

(8) 1 on throttle

(9) 1 on flaps

Warning Horn

The microswitch in the throttle quadrant activates a warning horn and red WARNING GEAR UNSAFE light under the following conditions:

• Gear up and power reduced below approximately 14 inches of manifold pressure

• Gear selector switch up while on the ground and throttle in the retarded position

• Whenever the flaps are extended beyond the approach position (10 degrees) and the landing gear are not down and locked

Emergency Gear Extension

• The Piper Arrow uses a free-fall valve for emergency gear extension.

• Activated from the flight deck, when the free-fall valve is opened, hydraulic fluid is allowed to flow from the gear-up side of the actuators to the gear-down side of the actuators.

• Pressure holding the gear up is relieved, and the gear extends due to its weight.

• Air moving past the gear aids in the extension and helps push the gear into the down-and-locked position.

• The nose gear is spring assisted.

VLO

107 Up, 129 down

• Maximum landing gear operating speed is the maximum speed at which the landing gear can be safely extended or retracted.

VLE

VLE - 129

• Maximum landing gear extended speed is the maximum speed at which an aircraft can be safely flown with the landing gear extended.

Landing Gear Callout: Before moving gear handle.

(1) you say "verify gear",

(2) instructor says, "gear verified",

(3) then you may move the gear handle.

- Only in Kent SOPs

Landing Gear Callout: When moving the gear selector.

hold handle until you get "3 green, no red"

(call that out).

Landing Gear Callout: Short Final Check

"mixture rich, prop full forward, 3 green, no red"