Management Review

Motivation

Motivation

A set of energetic forces that originates both within and outside an employee, initiates work-related effort, and determines its direction, intensity, and persistence

Performance = ?

f(Motivation * Ability * Opportunity)

Expectancy Theory

The cognitive process employees go through to make choices among different voluntary responses

Expectancy (E --> P)

The belief that exerting a high level of effort will result in successful performance of some task (E-->P)

Self-efficacy

Self-esteem focused on tasks (Do I have what it takes to do this?) -Vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, emotional cues, and past experiences.

Vicarious Experiences

Others' experiences. ex. ("If they can do it, so can I")

Verbal Persuasion

Encouragement, either positive or negative. ex. (Coach encouraging players)

Emotional Cues

Your positive --> (pride and excitement) or negative --> (fear and anxiety) feelings towards a task. ex. (feeling anxious after working out, so you don't really ever wanna work out)

Past Experiences

Your own positive or negative experiences. ex. (Giving a pep talk to baseball team before a game referencing past wins)

Instrumentality (P --> O)

The belief that successful performance will result in some outcome.

Valence (V)

The anticipated value of the outcomes associated with performance.

Motivational Force

(E --> P) * ε [(P --> O) *V]

Goal Setting Theory

Goals are the primary drivers of intensity and persistence of effort.

Equity Theory

Motivation doesn't just depend on your own beliefs and circumstances but also on what happens to other people.

Reinforcement Theory

Made up of 4 Operant conditionings - PR, NR, EX, P

Positive Reinforcement

Positive behavior for a positive consequence. "If you behave well, I'll buy you candy."

Negative Reinforcement

Positive behavior deletes negative consequence. "If you participate in class, you won't fail."

Extinction

Negative behavior deletes positive consequence. "If you hit your friend, I won't buy you candy."

Punishment

Negative behavior for a negative consequence. "If you don't behave, I'll punish you."

Learning

Relatively permanent changes in an employee's knowledge or skill that result from experience.

Decision making

Process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem.

Expertise

The knowledge and skills that distinguish experts from novices and less experienced people.

Explicit Knowledge

Easy to communicate and explain to another person... you can find it in a book.

Tacit Knowledge

Can only learn by doing... by experience, observation, and practice.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous Reinforcement, Fixed Interval Schedule, Variable Interval Schedule, Fixed Ratio Schedule, and Variable Ratio Schedule

Continous Reinforcement

Specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a certain behavior. ex. (Parents pay $ to kid when he gets good grades, but when they stop, kid might not be motivated to get good grades).

Fixed Interval Reinforcement

Reinforcement occurs at fixed time periods. Get rewarded/ get a consequence after a determined amount of time. ex. (Kid gets junk food allowance every 2 weeks/ every month).

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement occurs at random periods of time. Get rewarded/ get a consequence every once in a while. Not determined. ex. (Kid gets junk food allowance randomly).

Fixed Ratio Schedule

After a fixed number of behaviors, you'll get rewarded. ex. (If you go to class 5 times, you'll get 5 points).

Variable Ratio Schedule

After a varying or changing number of behaviors, you'll get rewarded. ex. (If a person shows up early to work 3 times, get extra 30 mins of lunch break).

Behavioral Modeling

Attentional Processes -> Retention Processes -> Production Processes -> Reinforcement

Attentional Processes

Focusing attention on behaviors exhibited by model.

Retention Processes

Learner must remember the behaviors of the model once model is not there.

Production Processes

Learner must be able to produce what they just learned (by retention and attentional processes).

Reinforcement

Learner must be reinforced while doing the behaviors just learned.

Learning Orientation

growing and developing for the sake of learning. Not scared of failing

Performance-prove Orientation

Demonstrate to other people how successful you are and what you're able to do (Look what I can do!)

Performance-avoid Orientation

Demonstrate to other people what you're good at and avoid doing things you are not good at so that people don't think poorly of you

What two methods can employees use to make decisions?

Programmed decisions and Non-programmed Decisions

Rational decision-making model

1. Identify important criteria

2. Generate available alternatives

3. Evaluate alternative against the criteria

4. Select the best alternative

5. Implement the best alternative

What are some decision making problems?

Limited Information (bounded rationality, satisficing), Faulty Perceptions (selective perception, projection bias, social identity theory, stereotype, heuristics, availability bias, fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias, consensus, distinctiveness, consistency), Escalation of Commitment

Consensus

agreement in the judgment or opinion reached by a group as a whole (Does everyone act that way?)

Distinctiveness

The quality of being an individual or easily distinguishable (For all/other activities or just this one?)

Consistency

Behaves in the same way, has the same attitudes towards people or things, or achieves the same level of success in something (Always behaves this way?)

Personality

The structures and propensities inside a person that explain his or her characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and behavior (It's what people are like)

Conscientiousness

Dependable, organized, reliable, ambitious, hardworking, and persevering (Influence on job performance? Accomplishment striving)

Agreeableness

Warm, kind, cooperative, sympathetic, helpful, and courteous (Influence on job performance? Communion striving)

Neuroticism

Nervous, moody, emotional, insecure, jealous (Influence on job satisfaction? Negative affectivity) (Influence on stress? Differential exposure and reactivity, locus of control)

Openness to Experience

Curious, imaginative, creative, complex, refined, and sophisticated

Extraversion

Talkative, sociable, passionate, assertive, bold, and dominant (Influence on job performance? Status striving) (Influence on job satisfaction? Positive affectivity)