apes semester 1

What does the term “environment” include or consist of

Environment is the sum of all the conditions surrounding us that influence life, both biotic and abiotic.

Define biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem

Biotic means living (ex. plants, animals), and abiotic means nonliving (ex. soil, temperature, water).

Define ecosystem services and give some examples

Processes by which the resources that support life (ex. clean water, timber, agricultural crops) are produced.

Can benefit us directly (by providing the food we eat) and indirectly (providing biodiversity → making the ecosystem healthier for all organisms including humans).

What does sustainability mean

Sustainability means living on Earth in a way that allows humans to use its resources without depriving future generations (of those resources).

How does genetic diversity and biodiversity help an ecosystem thrive

Genetic diversity helps an ecosystem to thrive by making populations better able to respond to environmental change.
If a population of fish has high genetic diversity for disease resistance, at least some individuals are likely to survive whatever diseases move through the population

List some greenhouse gases and explain how they contribute to life on Earth and how they can cause problems for life on Earth

Greenhouse gases include CO2 (carbon dioxide), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O). They can cause problems for life on Earth by increasing global temperatures, which in turn leads to climate change, rising sea levels, habitat loss, and more.

Describe the difference between developed nations and underdeveloped nations when it comes to resource use and ecological footprint

Developed nations have higher resource consumption and larger ecological footprints (a measure of how much an individual consumes, expressed in an area of land) than underdeveloped nations.

Define anthropogenic and give some examples of negative impacts we have on the environment

Anthropogenic means derived from human activity. Examples of negative impacts we have on the environment include the increase in atmospheric CO2 (which causes global warming and climate change), pollution, and habitat destruction (from deforestation and urbanization).

Define environmental justice and explain why it is important

Environmental justice is providing equal resources to all people and communities; everyone has the right to live and thrive in safe, healthy environments.

Define element, compound, molecule

An element is a substance composed of atoms that cannot be broken down into smaller, simpler atoms. A molecule is a particle that contains more than one atom. A compound is a molecule containing more than one element.

unique properties of water

surface tension, capillary action, boiling/freezing, universal solvent, etc.

Surface tension

skin on water’s surface from the cohesion of water molecules
- ex. an aquatic insect, such as a water strider, walk across water

Capillary action

when adhesion of water molecules to a surface is stronger than cohesion between the molecules
- ex. absorption of water by a paper towel or sponge

Boiling/freezing

boils at 100C and freezes as 0C
- Takes a great deal of energy to change the temperature of water → water in organisms protects them from wide temperature swings

Universal solvent

dissolves more substances than any other liquid
- Many toxic substances (fertilizers, human waste, road deicers) all dissolve well in water, which makes them easy to transport through the environment

Explain the pH scale

Acids are from 1-6, neutral (pure water) is at 7, and bases are from 8-14. An acid contributes hydrogen ions to a solution, while a base contributes hydroxide ions to a solution.

When an acid or a base dissolves in water, what does it dissociate into

When an acid dissolves in water, it dissociates into positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) and negatively charged ions.
When a base dissolves in water, it dissociates into negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH-) and positively charged ions.

How does the pH scale work? If a substance has a pH of 4, how many more times is the hydrogen ion concentration compared to a substance with a pH of 6

The pH scale is logarithmic, meaning each number on the scale changes by a factor of 10. The pH of 6’s hydrogen ion concentration is 100 times the concentration of a substance with a pH of 4.

1st Law of Thermodynamics and give an example

The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can change from one form to another.
Example would be impounded water from a dam

2nd Law of Thermodynamics and give an example

The second law of thermodynamics states that when energy is transformed, the quantity of energy remains the same, but its ability to do work diminishes.
Example would be converting the chemical energy of coal into the electricity that provides light from a reading lamp, and the heat released from the lamp

What is ocean acidification

When carbon emissions end up in the ocean, carbonic acid makes the ocean more acidic; when carbonic acid forms, it scavenges carbonate ions from the ocean, which prevents sea creatures from growing calcium carbonate (which they use in their exoskeletons and shells). Causes coral bleaching as well!

How to reverse ocean acidification

cutting carbon dioxide emissions by switching to renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and reducing fossil fuel use

Explain positive and negative feedback loops

A negative feedback loop is when a system responds to a change by either returning to its original state or decreasing the rate at which the change is occurring.
A positive feedback loop is when a change in a system is amplified.

Explain potential energy and kinetic energy. Give examples of each

Potential energy is stored energy that has not been released.
Impounded water behind a dam
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
A car moving down the street

Define food chains and food webs.  Create a simple food chain.

A food chain is the sequence of consumption from producers through tertiary consumers.
Ex. Grass (Producer) → Grasshopper (Herbivore) → Frog (Carnivore) → Snake (Carnivore) → Hawk (Apex Predator)
A food web is a complex model of how energy and matter move between trophic levels.

How does energy flow through a food chain? Describe energy transfer and the energy pyramid

Energy moves from one trophic level to the next through consumption. Energy transfer happens when one organism eats another, but only 10% of the energy is passed on to the next level.The energy pyramid structure visually represents the 10% Rule of Energy Transfer, showing producers converting sunlight into energy, which then moves up to primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers, with decomposers recycling nutrients.

Write out the equation for photosynthesis and cellular respiration

Photosynthesis: Solar energy + H2O + CO2 → C6H12O6 +O2
Cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + O2 →H2O + 6CO2 + energy

What are the products of photosynthesis? What are the reactants

The products of photosynthesis are glucose and oxygen, and the reactants are carbon dioxide and water.

What are the products of cellular respiration? What are the reactants

The products of cellular respiration are water and carbon dioxide, and the reactants are glucose and oxygen.

What organisms go through cellular respiration

All (living) organisms.

Water cycle

Evaporation (liquid to vapor from surfaces), transpiration (vapor from plants), and sublimation (water moves directly to vapor from ice or snow without melting) move water up; Condensation forms clouds; Precipitation (rain, snow) brings it down; then infiltration (soaking in), runoff (flowing over land), and collection return water

Nitrogen cycle

Fixation is where bacteria change nitrogen into ammonium. Nitrification is the process by which ammonium gets changed into nitrates by bacteria, which the plants then absorb. Assimilation is where plants get nitrogen by absorbing nitrates from the soil into their roots. Then the nitrogen gets used in amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. Ammonification is part of the decaying process. When a plant or animal dies, decomposers like fungi and bacteria turn the nitrogen back into ammonium so it can reenter the nitrogen cycle. Denitrification is the final step, where extra nitrogen in the soil gets put back out into the air.

Sulfur cycle

Weathering releases sulfur from rocks; microbes transform it into sulfates (plants use) and hydrogen sulfide (gas); assimilation by plants/animals; decomposition releases it; and atmospheric reactions (like SO₂ forming acid rain) return it to Earth

Phosphorus cycle

Rain and weather causes rocks to release phosphate ions and other minerals. Plants take up inorganic phosphate from the soil. Once consumed and in the body of the plant or animal, the phosphate is incorporated into organic molecules such as DNA. Eventually, when the plant or animal dies, it decays, and the organic phosphate is returned to the soil. Within the soil, bacteria breaks down organic matter to inorganic forms of phosphorus in a process known as mineralisation. Phosphorus in soil can end up in waterways and eventually oceans; it can be incorporated into sediments over time.

List the levels of the atmosphere and describe what is found at each level

Troposphere - densest layer where most of the atmosphere’s nitrogen, oxygen, and water vapor occur; where Earth’s weather occurs
Stratosphere - contains ozone layer, upper strato is warmer than lower strato
Mesosphere - thin air with nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
Thermosphere - blocks harmful X-ray and UV radiation from reaching our planet, causes aurora borealis and aurora australis
Exosphere - extremely sparse particles of light gases, temperatures are high due to solar radiation but it feels freezing

What is the importance of the ozone layer and where is it located

The ozone layer absorbs most of UV-B radiation and all of UV-C radiation, protecting organisms from DNA damage and cancer.

Know what causes the seasons and how to figure out which season is which when looking at the Earth as it rotates around the sun

Seasons are caused by Earth’s tilt; for Spring and Fall, the Sun is directly overhead and all regions get 12 light hours/12 dark hours. For Winter, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun; For Summer, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun.

Describe albedo and where it takes place the most and the least

Albedo is the percentage of incoming sunlight reflected from a surface. It takes place the most at snow-covered polar regions and least at tropical regions with dense green foliage.

Polar cells

between 60 N and 60 S and 90 N and 90 S, rises at 60s and sinks at 90s; rising air cools and water vapor condenses into precipitation, air dries as it moves toward poles, where it sinks

Ferrell cells

between 30 and 60 latitude, acts as a buffer between the Hadley and Polar cells, characterized by sinking air near 30° (creating high pressure/dryness) and rising air near 60° (leading to storms); resulting in warm air moved away from tropics/cold air moved away from poles and a wide range of warm and cold air currents.

Hadley cells

found between equator and 30 N and 30S, warm, moist air rises, cools and falls as precipitation, is chilled by adiabatic cooling and sinks, and adiabatic heating causes the air to warm

Define climate and compare to weather

Climate is defined by ocean currents and circulation. Weather is the short-term atmospheric conditions at a specific time/place, while climate is the average weather over a long period.

Describe a rain shadow

A dry area on the leeward side of a mountain that receives less precipitation because of the humid winds (from ocean) causing precipitation on the other (windward) side. As moist air rises up the windward side of the mountain, it cools, causing it to release its moisture as rain or snow. The air that descends on the other side is then dry and warmer, leading to arid conditions in the rain shadow.

Define upwelling and the importance

Upwelling is when cold and nutrient-rich water from the depths goes to the surface as a result of diverging currents; it is important because it supports producers -->marine life and attracts more cold-water species to places like the California coast.

Tundra

low precipitation, cold; small woody shrubs, mosses, heaths, and lichens

Boreal forest/taiga

relatively low precipitation, cold; coniferous (pine, spruce) and deciduous (birch, maple)

Temperate seasonal forest

high precipitation, warm summers/cold winters; deciduous (beech, maple)

Temperate Grassland/cold desert

low-mid precipitation, hot summers/cold winters; grasses and nonwoody flowering plants

Tropical rainforest

high precipitation, warm; vines, orchids, rubber trees

Tropical seasonal forest/savanna

distinct wet and dry seasons, warm; acacia and baobab trees

Desert

hot, low precipitation; cacti, euphorbs, succulent plants

Wetlands (fresh or marine)

can change (usually high), depends on location; rushes, mangroves, cypress trees

Describe coral bleaching

Coral bleaching is when algae inside corals die, causing the corals to turn white (theorized to be because of disease and environmental changes like lower ocean pH and abnormally high water temperatures).

Describe an estuary and the ecological importance

An estuary is an area where fresh water and salt water mix; it is important because rivers carry large amounts of nutrient-rich organic material, which causes estuaries to be extremely productive for plants and algae → the abundant plant life helps filter contaminants out of the water.

Describe population ecology

The study of factors that can cause populations to increase or decrease.

Give examples of density dependent and density independent factors

Density dependent factors DEPEND on the size of the population
Ex. food
Density independent factors have the same effect on an individual’s survival and the amount of reproduction at any population size.
Ex. natural disasters

Give examples of K selected and r selected species and describe their lives

K-selected have a low intrinsic growth rate that causes the population to increase slowly until it reaches carrying capacity.
Ex. elephants, large mammals, most birds
R-selected have a high intrinsic growth rate that often leads to population overshoots and die-offs.

Type I survivorship curve

high survival throughout most of the lifespan, but individuals start to die in large numbers as they approach old age. (top)

Type II survivorship curve

relatively constant decline in survivorship (middle)

Type III survivorship curve

low survivorship early in life with few reaching adulthood (r-selected!) (bottom)

Logistic growth crve

initially exponential growth, but slows as it approaches carrying capacity (follows an s curve)

Exponential growth curve

estimates a population’s future size after a period of time based on the intrinsic growth rate and number of reproducing individuals currently in population

Describe keystone species and their importance

A species that is not abundant but has large effects on an ecological community
Ex. beaver (dams)
Sometimes called this because of their mutualistic interactions with other species (ex. Relatively rare pollinator species)

Primary succession

ecological successions occurring on surfaces WITHOUT soil

Secondary succession

succession of plant life that occurs in areas that have been disturbed but have not lost their soil

Pioneer species

a species that can colonize new areas rapidly and grow well in full sunshine

Climax species

a plant or animal that dominates a stable, mature ecosystem (the climax community) that has reached its final stage of ecological succession, thriving in predictable conditions and often tolerant of shade

Species Richness

the number of species in an area

Species Evenness

the relative proportion of individuals within the different species in an area

Review age structure diagrams and know how to interpret them

Always check units (millions or otherwise)! Left is male, right is female
Column indicates population stability and developed country
Pyramid is developing country, unstable

Review how to calculate population growth rate problems

(end-start)/start = x (times 100 for percentage))

Layers making up the Earth in order from outside to inside

crust, lithosphere, asthenosphere, mantle, core

Crust

thin, rocky, outermost layer; this and overlying soil provide most of the chemical elements that make up life (continental and oceanic)

Lithosphere

rigid outermost layer (overlaps), divided into several very slowly moving plates of solid rock that hold the continents and oceans

Asthenosphere

semi-molten, ductile/flexible rock, in outer part of mantle, the plates of the lithosphere move/float on this

Mantle

layer of Earth above the core, containing magma that slowly circulates in convection cells

Core

innermost zone of Earth’s interior, composed of iron and nickel (liquid outer and solid inner)

Where do you find magma circulating

The Mantle

What is a subduction zone

A boundary where two tectonic plates collide and one plate, usually the denser oceanic plate, is forced to slide beneath the other and sink into Earth's mantle.

Where is new ocean floor created

At mid-ocean ridges, where plates made of oceanic crust pull apart (divergent boundary)

Where is the asthenosphere found

In outer part of mantle

Igneous rock

formed directly from magma

Sedimentary rock

forms when sediments (ex. muds, sands, gravels) are compressed by overlying sediments

Metamorphic rock

formed when sedimentary rock, igneous rock, or other metamorphic rocks are subjected to high temperature and pressure

What happens when tectonic plates collide

Convergent plate boundaries are created

What is the difference between physical weathering and erosion of rocks

Physical weathering is the mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals, while erosion is the physical removal of rock fragments from a landscape/ecosystem.

What are some services that soil provides

Soil is the primary filter of water, a medium for plant growth, provides habitat (biodiversity), filters chemical compounds deposited by air pollution and by household sewage systems.

List the layers of the soil horizons

O Horizon, Humus, A Horizon/topsoil, E Horizon, B Horizon, C Horizon

O horizon

composed of organic detritus (ex. needles - have to be in stages of decomposition)

Humus

most fully decomposed organic matter in the lowest layer of the O horizon (does not contain recognizable plant or animal components)

A horizon/topsoil

organic material (including humus) and minerals that have been mixed together

E horizon

leaching and eluviation, where iron/aluminum/dissolved organic acids from the overlying horizons are transported through and removed

B horizon/subsoil

acids get deposited here, composed primarily of mineral material with very small amounts of organic matter, including humus (has all the nutrients)

C horizon

least weathered soil horizon, occurs beneath the B horizon and is similar to parent material

Surface mining

strip mining (removal of strips of soil/rock to expose ore), open-mit mining (large hole, used when resource is close to surface but extends beneath it), mountaintop removal (remove entire top of a mountain with explosives), placer mining (looking for metals and precious stones within river sediment)

subsurface mining

used when desired resource is more than 100m below surface

List the particles of soil from largest to smallest

Sand, silt, clay

What is ore and what ways is it formed in the ground

A concentrated accumulation of minerals; can be formed when magma comes into contact with water, in veins, after deposition of igneous rocks, etc.

What are some environmental problems associated with mining

Construction of roads → soil erosion, damage to waterways, and habitat fragmentation
Mine tailings may contaminate land and water with acids and metals (acid mine drainage=contaminated water)
Mountaintop removal can cause damage to streams and nearby groundwater

What is reclamation and what law mandates that land should be minimally disturbed and reclaimed after mining is completed

The process of returning land to its original or better condition after mining is completed.
- Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977