Founders of Sociology: Comte, Durkheim, Weber & Spencer

These flashcards cover the central concepts, theories, and examples associated with the four major founders of sociology—Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Herbert Spencer—providing a comprehensive review for exam preparation.

Who is widely regarded as the father of sociology and pioneer of positivism?

Auguste Comte (1798–1857).

What is the central idea of Comte’s positivism?

All valid knowledge must be based on scientific observation, experimentation, and logic rather than superstition or metaphysics.

According to Comte, what are the three intellectual stages through which human thought evolves?

Theological, Metaphysical, and Positive (Scientific) stages.

In Comte’s Law of Three Stages, how does the theological stage explain natural events?

By attributing them to supernatural beings or deities.

Give an example of a metaphysical explanation under Comte’s system.

Explaining disease as a disturbance of the body’s “vital force” instead of divine punishment or germs.

What characterizes the positive (scientific) stage in Comte’s framework?

Use of empirical evidence and scientific laws to explain phenomena, e.g., germs cause disease.

What is the difference between social statics and social dynamics in Comte’s theory?

Social statics study structures that maintain stability; social dynamics study processes of social change.

List Comte’s hierarchy of sciences from simplest to most complex.

Mathematics → Astronomy → Physics → Chemistry → Biology → Sociology.

Why did Comte label sociology the most complex science?

Because it deals with the intricate behaviors and interactions of human beings in society.

What was Comte’s proposed secular alternative to traditional religion?

The “Religion of Humanity,” complete with rituals, saints (great thinkers), and a moral code of altruism.

What did Durkheim mean by “social facts”?

External patterns of thinking or acting (e.g., money, laws, language) that exert coercive power over individuals.

Name Durkheim’s two types of social solidarity.

Mechanical solidarity and Organic solidarity.

How does mechanical solidarity bind traditional societies together?

Through shared beliefs, values, and similar daily activities—people are alike.

Why does organic solidarity characterize modern societies?

Because people perform specialized roles and depend on each other’s different skills for survival.

What concept did Durkheim use to describe normlessness during rapid social change?

Anomie.

Durkheim identified four types of suicide. Name them.

Egoistic, Altruistic, Anomic, and Fatalistic suicide.

Which of Durkheim’s works pioneered statistical analysis of a social problem?

His 1897 study “Suicide.”

In Durkheim’s view, what function does religion serve for society?

It creates collective consciousness and social cohesion by reinforcing shared values through ritual.

What are “social currents” in Durkheim’s terminology?

Temporary collective emotions or ideas that sweep through a crowd and influence individuals (e.g., panic, grief).

For Weber, sociology is chiefly the science of what?

Social action—behavior meaningfully oriented toward others.

What does Weber’s term Verstehen refer to?

Interpretive understanding: grasping the subjective meanings individuals attach to their actions.

List Weber’s four ideal types of social action.

Instrumental-rational, Value-rational, Affective, and Traditional action.

Define Weber’s concept of rationalization.

The historic process by which social life becomes more calculated, predictable, and rule-governed.

Give three core features of an ideal-type bureaucracy, according to Weber.

Hierarchy of authority, formal rules/regulations, and division of labor with impersonal, merit-based positions.

What is Weber’s “iron cage”?

A situation where individuals feel trapped by the rigid rules and dehumanizing efficiency of bureaucratic systems.

State the main thesis of Weber’s ‘Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.’

Protestant (especially Calvinist) values of hard work and thrift fostered a disciplined ‘spirit’ conducive to modern capitalism.

Name Weber’s three types of legitimate authority.

Traditional, Charismatic, and Legal-Rational authority.

Who coined the phrase “survival of the fittest”?

Herbert Spencer, not Charles Darwin.

What is Social Darwinism in Spencer’s thought?

Application of natural selection to society: competition allows the ‘strong’ to succeed; state aid for the ‘weak’ should be minimal.

Explain Spencer’s organic analogy.

Society is like a living organism; its institutions (family, economy, government) function like organs interdependent for the whole’s survival.

Differentiate Spencer’s militant and industrial societies.

Militant—hierarchical and war-focused; Industrial—individual freedom, voluntary cooperation, economic growth.

Outline Spencer’s basic evolutionary sequence of societies.

Simple → Compound → Doubly/Triply Compound (increasing structural complexity).

Why did Spencer reject state welfare programs?

He believed aiding the ‘unfit’ interfered with natural social evolution and hindered progress.

What is the primary criticism of Spencer’s Social Darwinism today?

It justified inequality, racism, and colonialism by portraying them as ‘natural.’

In Comte’s three stages, who holds authority in the theological stage compared with the positive stage?

Priests or divine-right rulers in the theological stage; scientists and experts in the positive (scientific) stage.

According to Durkheim, what legal style corresponds to mechanical solidarity?

Repressive law—punishment for violating collective moral norms.

What kind of law predominates under organic solidarity, according to Durkheim?

Restitutive law aimed at restoring relationships or rights rather than harsh punishment.

Which sociologist emphasized empirical data to uncover ‘laws of society’ comparable to Newton’s laws of physics?

Auguste Comte.

How does Weber’s focus differ from Durkheim’s when analyzing social order?

Weber centers on individual meaning and authority structures; Durkheim stresses external social facts and collective morality.