Intro to Psychology Test 2

Chapters 7, 8, 13, and 14

What is Learning

• relatively consistent change in behaviour or behaviour potential based on experience

• Take info and evaluate it, use it, and then make a response to the environment

Learning-performance distinction

• difference between what has been learned and what is expressed (performed)- not always able to

• goes with consistent change and potential

Habituation

*Decrease in response strength to a repeated stimulus 

• basic form of learning

• stimuli does not perform an action because it foes not need your attention 

  • because of repeated action 

    • how you get to school, use to the clothes that you tend to wear

• LEARN TO ACT A WAY

Sensitization 

*Increases the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus 

Key features of Learning

• not all changes in behaviour are a response or result of learning

  • only relatively permanent changes are- consistent over diff occasions

• Change is not always immediately obvious

• Not all learning is intentional

  • pitcher is sore, pitch changes due to injury. NOT that it learned to change

Ivan Pavlov 

*Classical Conditioning 

• Russian Psychologist 

  • observed learned associations during his research on digestion of animals 

  • gave food to dogs and measured salivary response 

• 1904 NOBEL PRIZE

John Watson

• Behaviourism

  • introspection is too limiting, must look at how people respond (inside vs outside)

B.F. Skinner 

• Operant conditioning model and schedules of reinforcement 

  • what are the causes of behaviour

Observational Learning/Behavioural Analysis

• Focus on discovering environmental determinants of learning and behaviour 

  • learned associations

Reflex

• simple unlearned response to a stimulus

Stimulus 

• an environmental condition that elicits a response 

Classical Conditioning OR Pavlovian Conditioning

• Dogs salivate before food even provided

  • bell and footsteps served as the stimuli

  • behaviour is elicited by a stimulus that has acquired its power through association with a BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANT stimulus

• repeated pairing of a stimulus with stimuli- elicit reflex response

• not voluntary

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) 

• any stimulus that naturally elicits a behaviour 

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

• the behaviour elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• a neutral stimulus that is able to elicit behaviour only after association with the Unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• the behaviour is elicited to the Conditioned stimulus

• The neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus

  • UCR & CR ARE THE SAME BUT WHAT ELICTS THEM IS DIFFERENT

Acquisition 

• the process by which the CR is the first elicited and gradually increases in frequency over repeated trials 

• it is being learned 

• timing of the PAIRED stimulus is important!

Extinction

• weakening of the CR as a result of the absence of CS and UCS

• habituation

  • stimuli does not produce an action, it does not need your attention

Spontaneous recovery 

• sudden reappearance of the CR after a reset period without further exposure to the UCS

• generalizations and discrimination 

Acquisition & Timing

• slide 14 of learning PPT

• Study in order

Forward- Short Delay (Acquisition & Timing)

• keep ringing bell when bringing food 

Forward- Trace (Acquisition & Timing)

• ring bell then stop and bring the food

Simultaneous (Acquisition & Timing)

• food and bell at the same time 

Backward (Acquisition & Timing)

• bring food, then ring bell

Stimulus generalization 

• automatic extension of conditioned responses to stimuli, similar to CS 

  • objects, words— style vs stile also style and fashion

Example:

• phone ringing and a song that sounds similar

Stimulus discrimination 

• Learning to respond differently to stimuli that differ from the CS on some dimension 

  • works in balance with generalization to respond effectively

Discrimination 

• a CR does not occur in response to a different CS that resembles the original CS

  • there is no response to a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus used during learning

Generalization

• A different CS that resembles the original CR

  • responding occurs to a stimulus that resembles the original discriminative stimulus used during learning

Extinction

• A CS is presented without a US until the CR no longer occurs 

  • responding gradually ceases if reinforcement is no longer available

Exposure Therapy

• Connects to distinguishing phobias  

• Extinction of the CR through exposure to the CS without presence of the UCS

Example: 

• elevator example, usually step by step 

Systematic Desensitization

• muscular relaxation paired with gradual exposure to fear-inducing stimulus

Flooding

• Exposure to fearful stimulus

• Example:

  • starting within the elevator

Operant Conditioning

*EDWARD THORNDIKES

• research on cats & puzzle boxes *Problem solving

  • learning from experience as time goes on

• Learning procedures which manipulate the consequences of behaviour in order to see what effect this has on a subsequent behaviour

Operant Conditioning- Law of Effect

*Try, learn from it, get rid of less probable, follow which are

1. Animal begins with trial and error- slow performance (cat getting out of box puzzle) 

2. Gradually eliminated responses- a response followed by satisfying consequences, becomes more probable

3. A response followed by dissatisfying consequences becomes less probable

Discriminant Stimulus- Operant Conditioning 

• a particular response will produce certain consequences 

Example:

• Elevator door shutting

Operant- Operant Conditioning

• affecting the environment = behaviour that is emitted

  • voluntary

Example

• the elevator itself

• the crowd waiting for it

• the buttons

Skinners Analysis of Operant Behaviour 

*IF A is present, AND B is emitted, THEN C will occur 

• Relations between A & B = contingencies

A: antecedents (factors that preceded the behaviour) of behaviour 

B: behaviours 

C: consequences that follow the behaviour 

Partial Reinforcement effect 

• response acquired under schedules of partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than those acquired with continuous reinforcement 

• reinforcers are delivered according to ration (number of responses) to interval (time) schedules

  • fixed or variable patterns   

Classical VS Operant

Classical

• an association is formed, but a response (salivation) is not required for a reward (food) to occur.

Operant

• an association is formed, and a response (lever press) is required to receive a reward (food).

Schedules of Reinforcement 

1. Fixed-Ratio

2. Variable Ratio 

3. Fixed-Interval 

4. Variable-Interval 

Fixed-Ration (FR)

• reinforcement after fixed number of responses emitted

Example:

• after you visit 10 times get 10% off your 11th visit

  • people go to places with the better reward system

Variable-Ratio (VR)

• average number of responses between reinforcers is predetermined  

  • future reward, we don’t know when it will be rewarded

Example: 

• casino slot machine

Fixed-Interval (FI)

• reinforcer is delivered for the first response after a fixed period of time 

• every ______ minutes

Example:

• subway/bus schedule 

Variable-Interval (VI)

• the average interval between reinforcers is predetermined

• don’t know how much time

• Example: 

  •  waiting for a specific email or text

Negative Reinforcement 

• behaviour that is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus 

  • INCREASE behaviour

Consequence: stimulus is removed or decreased 

Effect on Behaviour: increases the response 

Example: the rain no longer falls on you after you open your umbrella, so you are likely to do it again in the future 

Escape conditioning 

• response allows escape from aversive stimulus 

  • stimulus which people do not find pleasurable

Avoidance conditioning

• response allows avoidance of aversive stimuli before it begins  

Punisher

• any stimulus that, when made contingent on a response, decreases the probability of that response

Punishment

• delivery of punisher after response

Positive Punishment 

• behaviour that is followed by the delivery of an aversive stimulus

  • Decreases behaviour

Consequence: stimulus is added or increased

Effect on Behaviour: decrease the response

Example: a pet owner scolds their dog for jumping up on a house guest, and now the dog is less likely to do it again

Negative Punishment 

• behaviour that is followed by the removal of an appetitive stimulus 

  • Decreases behaviour

Consequence: punishment is removed

Effect on Behaviour: decrease the response

Example: a parent takes away TV privileges to stop the children from fighting

Positive Reinforcement 

Consequence: stimulus is added or increased 

Effect on Behaviour: increases the response 

Example: a child gets an allowance for making their bed, so they are likely to do it again in the future 

Observational Learning

*ALBERT BANDURA

• Cognitive aspects of learning are also demonstrated by our ability to learn from the experiences of others (social learning)

• individuals after just watching another person exhibiting a behaviour that was reinforced or punished, later behaves in the same way or refrains from doing it (if model was punished)

Cognitive aspects = expectations 

Modelling Process

• revolutionized study of child psychology

1. attention

2. retention

3. reproduction

4. motivation

Memory

• The capacity to store and retrieve information

Analogous: works as an information processing system or a computer-based system, how it stores and retrieves information (input - storage - retrieval)

Dynamic and Ever Changing: current experiences shape how we recall our past

• dementia would cause a change

Types: different kinds of memory use different brain systems

• processing and remembering our world

Implicit Memory 

• unconscious recall 

  • not thinking

• skills and habits

Example:

• typing, talking

Explicit Memory

• conscious recall 

  • involves thinking

Examples:

• tests, formulas, directions given to you

Procedural Memory 

• how to do things 

  • the way you remember how to get things done

• Examples: 

  •  making dinner, bus route, riding a bike

Declarative Memory

• recollection of facts and events

Example:

• what are those words again?

Information Processing Theory

• Input

  • info taken into brain

• Storage

  • info gets processed, analyzed, and stored until use

• Retrieval

  • info is used as basis of behaviours and interactions

Encoding - Memory Process

• Encoding

  • mental representation in memory based on information processing (turn sensory input into mental code)

    • What do you see how do you know what it is

Example:

• with our eyes closed we can still interpret a snap or clap by the sound

Storage - Memory Process

• retention (keeping) information over time 

Retrieval - Memory Process

• recovery of stored information over time

  • bring stored info to back to mind

Sensory Register/Sensory Memory

• first stage, designed to briefly hold an image of each sensory experience until it can be fully processed

  • two most used echoic memory (auditory), photographic memory (visual)

*a memory system in the visual domain that allows large amounts of information to be stored for very brief durations (0.5 seconds)

memory codes or images = data

Short Term Memory (STM)

• mechanism for focussing cognitive resources on a small set of mental process

  • approx. 30 seconds

• involves preservation of very recent experiences and brief retrieval of info from LTM if needed

• has limited capacity

Millers Magic Number: 7 + or -2 (very brief)

Rehearsal 

• repeating information 

• lack of rehearsal- interference related to decreased memory 

Chunking

• the process of re organizing items by grouping them on basis of similarity or some other organizing principle

  • patterns based on LTM

Chunk = meaningful unit of information

• using first letters in order to remember key points, acronyms

Example:

• NFL, NHL, NBA

Working Memory 

• resource involved in tasks such as reasoning and language comprehension

• foundation for movement-by-movement fluidity of thought and action & integration of information 

  • use different cognitive resources in order to create a long term memory

Three components of Memory codes (Baddeley)

• Phonological loop/phonological encoding → Sound-based info.

• Visuospatial sketchpad/visual encoding → Visual/spatial info.

• Central executive/motor encoding → Directs attention, integrates info, retrieves from LTM.

  • brings together phonological and visuopatial

Working memory 

• REVIEW SLIDE 15 AND BREAK DOWN 

Long Term Memory (LTM)

• permanent storehouse for knowledge, experience, skill, emotions, and judgements that have been acquired from sensory or STM

• preservation of info for future retrieval

• unlimited capacity

“Match” between encoding and recall information

Retrieval Cues

• the stimuli that triggers search for particular memory

  • externally or internally generated

Tests: recall, recognition

Recall 

• reproduction of information to which previously exposed 

• Works with recognition 

Recognition

• realization that a certain stimulus is one you have seen or heard before

  • recognition cues often stronger & more straightforward

• works with recall 

Episodic Memories- Retrieval Cues  

• memory for things you have personally experienced 

  • brings you back to that time and place

Semantic memories- Retrieval Cues

• general knowledge, categorical memories

  • not linked to specific episodes where memory was obtained

    • brushing your teeth

Encoding Specificity

• memories come back when the context matched the context of encoding

• context dependent memory involved recall

Contextual Distinctiveness

• retrieval can be altered by the context and distinctiveness of the experience that is being recalled

Retention Interval

• a period of time which you must keep the information in your memory

Transfer-appropriate processing

• memory is best when the type of processing carried out at encoding transfers to processes at retrieval

Priming:

• first experience of an item primes memory for later experiences

  • more likely to be recalled

Serial Position Effect 

Primary effect: 

• improved memory for items at the beginning of the list 

Recency effect: 

• improved memory for items at end of the list 

Levels of Processing Theory

• information processed at a deeper level is more likes to be retained

Structural Encoding

• paying attention to the structural properties of words & how it looks (shallow)

Phonological (phonemic) Encoding: 

• paying attention to the sound qualities of words (intermediary) 

Semantic Encoding

• paying attention to the meaning of the words (deepest processing)

Elaborative Rehearsal

• enhance memory by elaborating on material to be learned

  • connect new info to existing knowledge

Mnemonics

• device that encodes a long series of facts by associating them with familiar & previously encoded information

  • use patters, rhymes, or imagery to remember info

Structure in LTM 

• ability to integrate & categorize experiences 

Concepts: mental representations of the categories you form 

• based on family resemblance or prototypical features 

• objects best organized - basic level (hierarchical representation of concepts) 

Example: 

• piece of fruit, apple, granny smith 

Schemas - Structures in LTM

• frameworks organizing knowledge, regarding objects, people, and situations

• generalizations can be applied to interpret situations

Prototypes - Structures in LTM

• representation of average member of category

Example:

• chair — has a back, four legs etc.

what does it have in common, consistent features

Exemplars - Structures in LTM

• categorization based on comparison to examples in memory 

Examples:

• dining chairs vs lawn chairs

Ebbinghaus’ Finding

rapid forgetting after cramming

Interference Theory- Forgetting 

• when retrieval cues do not point effectively to one specific memory 

Proactive Interference- Forgetting 

• past info makes it more difficult to acquire new info

Retroactive Interference- Forgetting 

• new information makes it more difficult to remember old information 

Personality

• complex set of psychological qualities influencing consistent behaviour across time and situations

Fluid vs Stable

• theories used to both understand and predict behaviour

Three Underlying Characteristics

1. people differ from one another

2. behaviour is consistent

3. behaviour is caused by internal factors (not environmental)

Personality Traits

• use words go describe ourselves and others

• calm, organized, caring, outgoing, assertive

the sum of typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling is what makes a person unique

• personality structures (not environment) determine behaviour

  • personality is relatively stable and measurable on a continuum

Cattell’s 16 Personality Factors (16PF)

• Identify source traits through factor analysis to create 16 broad factor continuum

• Factor Analysis

  • statistical method used to describe variability among obsereved, correlated terms in order to reduce number

Eysenck’s Three Dimensions

1. Extraversion- Introversion

2. Neuroticism- Stability

3. Psychoticism- Superego

Extraversion - Introversion

• driven by brain arousal

• reticular formation mediated cortical arousal

Extraversion: outgoing, sociable, optimistic

• lower base level activation, seek further stimulation, high pain tolerance

Introversion: reserved, unsociable, quiet

• higher base leave activation, avoid further stimulation, low pain tolerance