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2 stress hormones
epinephrine (adrenaline)
norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
a.l. washburn’s balloon study - stomach & hunger
aimed to explain the physiology of hunger
washburn worked with walter cannon and swallowed a ballon attached to a recording device
when inflated to fill his stomach, the balloon transmitted his stomach contractions
washburn supplied information about his feelings of hunger by pressing a key each time he felt a hunger pang
they discovered that washburn was having stomach contractions whenever he felt hunger
ancel keys minnesota starvation study
ancel keys conducted a study of semistravation
fed 36 male volunteers (wartime conscientious objectors) just enough to maintain their initial weight
then, for six months, they cut their food levels in half
the men began conserving energy and appeared sluggish and dull
after dropping rapid amounts of weight, their body weights stabilized at about 25 percent below their starting point
the men became food obsessed and lost interest in sex and social activities
demonstrated how activated motives can hijack our consciousness
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly (15 percent or more) underweight.
anterior cingulate cortex
implicated in emotion, because it is involved in linking reward and punishment information, which elicit emotional responses, to behaviour, and, in particular, to actions
basal metabolic rate
a measure of how much energy a person uses to maintain basic body functions when the body is at rest
behavior feedback hypothesis
the idea that going through different motions can awaken the emotions (fake it til you make it)
ex: if you take long strides with arms swinging, you may feel your mood shift
blind people and emotional expression
even those who are blind, who have never observed smiles, display the same social smiles (indicating smiling is unlearned)
botox injections and emotion
botox injections paralyze the frowning muscles, improving depression and slows people’s reading of sadness or anger-related sentences, and slows activity in emotion related brain circuits
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use), excessive exercise, or fasting.
cannon-bard theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion
characteristics of fat cells
fat has a lower metabolic rate than other tissue, so a person might gain weight when eating “normally”
cognitive appraisal/two-factor theory
states that one must cognitively label the arousal
cognitive dissonance
The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent.
ex: leon festinger’s cognitive dissonance experiment — $1 group said the task was fun because they felt bad about lying and convinced themselves that the task was fun
detecting specific facial expressions (which are easier and quicker)
it is easier and quicker for people to identify angry/negative faces and emotions
drive
a state of unrest or irritation that energizes particular behaviors to alleviate it (the push)
based on inner needs and can be seen as a force pushing from inside of us
drive-reduction theory
when the instinct theory of motivation failed, it was replaced by drive-reduction theory
physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
people are motivated to engage in behaviors that satisfy their biological needs to achieve homeostasis
duchenne smile
genuine smile
theory states that a genuine smile involves eye constriction and raised cheeks
it is different from one taken during a selfie because in a selfie, it would be a forced smile and can be suddenly switched off
emotion (basic components)
emotions are our body’s adaptive response
focus attention
energize action
emotions are a mix of
physiological arousal (heart pounding)
expressive behaviors (quickened pace)
conscious experience (thoughts and feelings - panic, fear, joy)
emotionality of men vs. women
women generally surpass men at reading emotional cues when given thin slices of behavior, and also surpass men in other assessments of emotional cues (ex: deciding whether a male-female couple is a genuine romantic couple or phony couple – Barnes & Sternberg)
women’s nonverbal sensitivity helps explain their greater emotional literacy and greater emotional responsiveness.
women are more empathetic than men.
evolutionary benefit of fat
fat is an ideal form of stored energy—a high-calorie fuel reserve to carry the body through periods when food is scarce—a common occurrence in our prehistoric ancestors’ world. No wonder that in many developing societies today (as in Europe in earlier centuries) people find heavier bodies attractive: Obesity signals affluence and social status (Furnham & Baguma, 1994; Swami et al., 2011).
in parts of the world where food and sweets are now abundantly available, the rule that once served our hungry distant ancestors—When you find energy-rich fat or sugar, eat it!—has become dysfunctional
universality of facial expressions
no matter where you are in the world, facial expressions are universal
facial feedback hypothesis
the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness
genetic predispositions
one may do something because they are genetically predisposed to do it
works with instinct theory, which focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors
hans selye’s general adaption syndrome (GAS) + response to stress
selye proposed that the body’s adaptive response to stress is so general that, like a single burglar alarm, it sounds, no matter what intrudes
selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion
hierarchy of needs + order
abraham maslow suggested some needs have priority over others.
physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs like achievement, self-esteem, and need for recognition
order (bottom to top):
physiological needs
safety needs
belongingness + love needs
esteem needs
self-actualization needs
high-road brain pathway + cortex
the high road of emotion is slower and allows thinking about feeling
extends via the thalamus to the brain’s cortex and then through the amygdala
homeostasis
the maintenance of a steady internal state
orexin
hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus
insulin
hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose
ghrelin
hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends hunger signals to the brain
leptin
protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger
hypothalamus + hunger
the hypothalamus secretes orexin, a hunger-triggering hormone
incentive theory
where our needs (drives) push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us, reducing our drives
ex: a food-deprived person who smells baking bread
incentives can also be negative; we may behave in a certain way in order to avoid an unpleasant
ex: coming to school early in order to avoid getting detentions
is related to other behaviorist principles of learning (conditioning, Law of Effect, etc.)
incentives “external pulls”
positive or negative stimuli that lure or repel us
instincts
a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species
motivated by our inborn automated behaviors
the need to survive
instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of behaviors
however, evolutionary psychology might be hardwired, but can be modified fixed and unlearned
must be unlearned and fixed
introverts vs. extroverts
introverts are typically better at interpreting people’s feelings
extroverts are easier to read and are better at expressing feelings
james-lange theory
physiological activity precedes the emotional experience (we react to the changes in our body that we feel)
lateral hypothalamus
known as the hunger center, and two of its main functions are the stimulation of feeding behavior and arousal
when stimulated, it causes the feeling of hunger
if it is destroyed, and organism will no longer experience the feeling of hunger
learning’s influence on hunger and taste
environmental factors influence taste preferences and when people get hungry
conditioning can intensify or alter taste preferences
lie detection
contrary to claims that states that some experts can spot lies, available research suggests that virtually no one (except police professionals in high stakes situations) beats chance by much, as the behavioral differences between liars and truth-tellers are too minute for most people to detect
differing lies and truths — only about 54% accurate
low vs. high spinal cord injuries/theories of emotion
those with lower-spine injuries, who had lost sensation only in their legs, reported little change in their emotions’ intensity
those with high spinal cord injury, who could feel nothing below the neck, did report changes
some reactions were much less intense than before the injuries.
implications of these findings state that our bodily responses seemingly feed our experiences emotions
low-road brain pathway + cortex
the low road of emotion includes simple likes, aversions, and fears, or things that do not have to involve actual thinking
bypasses the cortex; the fear-provoking stimulus would travel from the eye or ear (via the thalamus) and directly to the amygdala
the low-road is quick and a shortcut that allows instant emotional reaction.
memory + hunger (amnesia/alzheimers)
moebius syndrome
a rare facial paralysis disorder
those with moebius syndrome typically cannot make facial expressions such as smiling
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
ex: Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm to free himself from a rock that pinned him down
need “internal push”
an internal desire or deficiency that can motivate behavior
obesity + fat cells
once we become fat, we require less food to maintain our weight than we did to attain it
when an overweight person’s body drops below its previous set point, the person’s hunger increases and metabolism decreases
thus, the body adapts to starvation by burning fewer calories
opponent-process theory
views emotions as pairs of opposites
we trigger one emotion by suppressing the opposing emotion
ex: you receive an award. The moment you're handed the certificate, you may feel a lot of joy and pleasure. However, an hour after getting the award, you may feel a bit sad.
optimum arousal theory
states that some motivated behaviors increase arousal
between bored low arousal and anxious hyperarousal lies a flourishing life.
having all our biological needs satisfied, we feel driven to experience stimulation
ostracism
social exclusion
research on nonverbal communication
robert zajonc (role of cognition)
contended that we actually have many emotional reactions apart from, or even before, our interpretation of a situation.
cognition may not precede emotion
self-actualization
people seek to realize their own potential
set point theory
the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.
posits that the human body has a predetermined weight or fat mass set-point range
settling point
the set point model is rooted firmly in the domain of physiological and genetic determinism, whereas the settling point model is more grounded in the effects of social, nutritional and environmental factors.
sleep deprivation (leptin + ghrelin)
sleep deprivation increase ghrelin, a hunger arousing hormone and decreases leptin, which supresses hunger.
it increases cortisol, a stress hormone that stimulate the body to make fat
social facilitation + eating
people tend to eat more when with others
social influence of eating
we tend to eat differently when with other people, and our dietary choices tend to converge with those we are with or influenced by
social media and narcissism
narcissistic people tend to have more friends on social media, as they collect more superficial friends
spillover effect
tendency of one person’s emotion to affect how other people around them feel
stress
a state of psychological tension or strain.
fight or flight (stress)
when stressed, the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate and respiration, diverts blood from digestion to the skeletal muscles, dulls feelings of pain, and releases sugar and fat from the body’s stores
this prepares the body for the adaptive response known as fight or flight
stress appraisal
the events of our lives flow through a psychological filter. how we appraise an event influences how much stress we experience and how effectively we respond.
stress reactions
fight or flight
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
stressors (3 main categories of external stressors)
catastrophes
significant life changes
daily hassles
studies of hunger after stomach is removed
researchers removed some rats’ stomachs and created a direct path to their small intestines (Tsang, 1938), and the rats continued to eat
some hunger persists similarly in humans whose stomachs have been removed as a treatment for ulcers or cancer.
subliminal exposure to fearful eyes
in one experiment, researchers used fMRI scans to observe the amygdala’s response to subliminally presented fearful eyes (Whalen et al., 2004)
although they were flashed too quickly for people to consciously perceive them, the fearful eyes triggered increased amygdala activity.
a control condition that presented happy eyes did not trigger this activity
sympathetic vs. parasympathetic
the sympathetic nervous system arouses you in a crisis, making you hyper aware and resulting in an increase in heart rate and breathing
the parasympathetic nervous system slows down the heart and breathing and shuts off stress hormones.
tend-and-befriend response
under stress, people (esp. women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with/seek support from others (befriend)
amygdala during rapid emotional responses
the amygdala sends more neural projections up to the cortex than it receives back, which makes it easier for our feelings to hijack our thinking than for our thinking to rule our feelings (LeDoux & Armony, 1999).
two-factor theory (schachter-singer)
states that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.
unit bias + eating
we may eat only one serving/unit (scoop, plateful, bun-fill) of food, but will eat more if the serving is larger
it matters what you put the food in
ventromedial hypothalamus
designated as the satiety center
controls hunger, satiety, and weight gain
when stimulated, it causes the sensation of fullness
yerkes-dodson law
predicts that there is a relationship between the difficulty of a task, our level of arousal, and the eventual outcome
for easy tasks = higher levels of arousal
for difficult tasks = moderate levels work best (optimal)