Australia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, UK, Greece

Major Australian cities holding 50% of population together

Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane

Aboriginals/ “the stolen generation”

name given to Australian natives. Groups include the Murri (Queensland), Nunga (south Australia), and Palawa (Tasmania).

In 1788, their populations were estimated around 250,000-500,000, tens of thousands later died after European colonists.

Natives were regarded as barely human, and during many Frontier Wars (massacres) natives were killed off.

Starting In 1910-1970, native children were taken from families to be raised in white homes, efforts to assimilate.

Not acknowledged as part of Australian population until 1967

British colonization of Australia 1788

Governor Arthur Phillips settled colony in Sydney Harbor. He urged the fair/kind treatment of natives/aboriginals.

Frontier wars 1780s - 1940s

Hostilities between colonists and aboriginals

Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act

1900

Act signed by Queen Victoria in 1901.

The 6 British colonies of the world united to form a “commonwealth”, Australia became a self-governing colony.

Gold Generation

during a gold rush in the late 1800s, it attracted immigration to the colony, causing an economic boom.

The term describes the wave of people who settled in Australia in search of gold.

During the gold rush, the Australian population grew to about 1.7 million, and was the start of a multicultural society. Now, immigration increased, attracting many types of skilled workmen and their families.

Railroad system of Australia

Given the scarcity of water and unreliable rivers, trading and transportation was difficult. So they built railroads as the colonies modernized. Howerver, each region was a seperate colony, so they did not have interest in connecting each other, so railroads led inland not along the coasts.

Later, colonies began to connect with each other, and the British parliament passed the commonwealth of Australia constitution act after a referendum was held in 1899.

Immigration restriction Act/ White Australia Policy

This was the one of the first laws passed by the new government, disallowing any immigrant who could not write at least 50 words in a European language.

Some were tricked, because if a non-white person was able to write 50 words in one European language, they could be asked later on to write in another language language.

This act also allowed for the deportation of any immigrants if they were to be jailed or commit a crime.

Targeted Chinese, japanese, Indonesian and anyone who would threaten the racial purity of Australia.

Immigration in Australia

Mainly after the gold rush, the “gold generation” made up a large number of immigrants in Australia. Mostly young white men from the UK went to Australia looking for jobs with their families.

Non-white groups included: Chinese, Japanese, Indonesian, etc.

Ten Pound Poms

Pommygrants (poms) → British migrants who migrated to Australia

These were Poms who moved to Australia following WWII, as Australia encouraged British immigration to grow its workforce. For just 10 pounds, Britons could settle in Australia to build a new life.

Under this plan, about 1.5 million immigrants came between 1947-1982.

Also, Italians, Germans, and Greeks, and later Czechs and Hungarians would come. Even South Americans and Middle Easterns who fled persecution.

Irony of “the lucky country”

Australia was lucky with a plentiful natural recources, sunshine, but ironic because the most important recources they lacked, like water.

Energy

Australia lacks water, so hydroelectric energy is restricted

Australia relies on its coal (mines) industry, being a $69.6 billion industry providing employment to thousands also an asset to its economy. This connects to the issue of climate change, while Australia contributes a lot to the carbon footprint, stopping will do nothing unless very nation also stopped.

Australia’s isolated geography and closeness to powerful Asian countries creates a national security issue as it struggles to access and protect energy sources (that’s why china is a threat).

China conflict

Australia is caught between the US-China rivalry. Since Australia is allied with the US, but has China as the number 1 trading partner, and it is so close to the growing Chinese military influence, Australia struggles to protect its energy/trading routes, infrastructure, and export markets.

Australia’s navy is also essential to its survival and power, but with Chinas growing influence, it fears it will be threatened.

Australia’s foreign relationships

Australia depends on its relationship with USA, and like the US, its biggest trading partner is China. Australia claims the South China Sea and expands influence to the Pacific Islands like Vanuatu.

Australia is a part of Five Eyes (the worlds most efficient intelligence-gathering network) with US, UK, New Zealand, Australia and Canada.

China

This country has technology far exceeding that of Australia, and poses a threat to Australia as it fears cyberattacks. Australia tries to reduce China’s influence, like freezing out communications corporations like Huawei.

Five Eyes

This allyship is the worlds most efficient intelligence-gathering network, including the UK, US, New Zealand, Canada, and Australia.

This group created the Pine Gap Military base near Alice Springs. Pine Gap is essential to the US’s intelligence gathering, and is the station for CIA satellites.

Australia and Japan hold a military relationship including joint air and sea combat exercises. All the countries in the Indo-Pacific region agree that the international sea lanes should stay open, as blocking China from claiming the entire South China Sea.

The Quad/ Quadrilateral Security Dialogue

Consisting of USA, Australia, Japan, and India (which is growing). This allows the four navies to cooperate in the pacific and halt Chinese influence and ensure that sea lanes remain open. (Not an alliance, just cooperation)

Iran’s geography

Iran is surrounded by the Zagros mountains, with an interior of desert. The two deserts are called Dasht-e Kavir (Great salt desert) and Dasht-e Lut (Plain of Desolation). The Zagros mountains begin along the coast of the Strait of Hormuz. Most of the population lives on the mountains.

What was Iran called before 1935?

Persia

Does Iran only have one ehtnicity?

No, Iran is mainly Persian, but includes Kurds, Baluchi’s, Turkmen, Azeris, Armenians, Arabs, Circassians, Lur tribes, and Jews.

What are Iran’s most important exports?

Oil and Natural Gas. Iran has the 4th largest oil and 2nd largest natural gas reserves in the world. These recourses are exported through the crucial Strait of Hormuz.

What is the official religion of Safavid Persia and why?

Shi’ism because it needed to distinguish itself from Sunni Muslim powers. Shi’ism only makes up 15% of the entire Muslim population, which are for the most part in Iran.

What was the role of the Safavid empire in Iran’s history?

The Safavid empire (lasting from 1501-1722) united the country, allowing it to govern itself and defend its borders. King Ismail regarded Shia Islam as the official religion.

What is the difference between Sunni and Shi’a islam?

Shi’a believe Muhammad’s son in law, Ali should have succeeded him as the Caliph, while Sunnis believe another caliph is right to rule. In 680 AD, Ali’s son Hussein was martyred (killed because of religion) in Karbala, which Shi’as celebrate during the festival of Ashura.

What happened to Iran after the fall of the Safavid Dynasty in 1722?

Iran became sought after as a territory of interest during WWI by Britain, Germany, Russia, and Turkey, who sought influence.

The Safavid empire was overthrown by Afghan clerics who believed that only religious men should rule, the Afghans thought that religion could control religion, but that politicians should have the power to tax and make laws.

Persia was neutral in WWI.

When did oil become significant in Iran?

oil was discovered in 1909, and after WWI, the British sought control over the oil in Iran and sell it. The Biritish established the Anglo-Persian oil company (aka British Petroleum/BP).

Who took power in Iran in 1921, and what was Britain role?

Reza Shah Pahlavi assumed power (after the Majlis voted to depose the shah), and Britain maintained a heavy influence through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company.

During WWII, Iran wanted to stay neutral, but since the Reza Shah Pahlavi was Pro-nazi, Britain and Russia took control of the oil fields, and a line to Russia was made. So, they forced Shah out of power so his son could take over : Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

Why did the CIA and MI6 help overthrow Iranian Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953 (cold war)?

Mohammad Mossadegh tried to nationalize the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, and Western Powers (like US) feared Soviet/communist influence in Iran.

Often said that the British and Americans overthrew Iranian democratically elected ruler.

Who led the 1979 Iranian Revolution?

Ayetollah Khomeini, religious cleric.

“Exchanged the crown for the turban”

The Iranian people replaced monarchy with a religious theocracy led by Ayatollah Khomeini.

What kind of government did Khomeini establish?

A violent, repressive theocracy that suppressed women’s rights and middle class freedoms that they had to flee.

What is the Iranian revolutionary guard?

A thuggish militia that intimidates political opponents and enforces clerical rule.

What triggered the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1989) and what was the result?

Saddam Hussein (Iraqi dictator) viewed Iran as a threat because of Iran’s emergence as a Shia Islamic Republic. It was a brutal stalemate with over a million dead.

What happened to attempts at reform in Iran between 1997-2021?

Moderates failed to gain control due to rigged elections and conservative backlash.

Who was elected in Iran’s rigged 2021 election?

Ebrahim Raisi

Sunni Circle

Iran field surrounded by a Sunni Circle as it was circled by Sunni rival states (as a Shia country).

Why was the 2003 US invasion of Iraq a strategic mistake?

It allowed Iran to strengthen ties with Shia militias like Hezbollah, undermining Sunni powers.

Who does Iran consider its main enemies?

The US (great satan) and Israel (little satan)

Why has Iran pursued nuclear weapons?

To assert regional power against enemies like Israel.

what did the 2015 nuclear deal with the US achieve?

working together temporarily under Iranian president Rouhani, and US president Obama, leading to the signing of a nuclear-arms accord. The US and Iran also had a common enemy, Sunni led ISIS. This deal collapsed under President trump in 2017 who imposed economic sanctions on Iran. The Revolutionary guard crushed domestic resistance violently.

Assembly Soleimani

Killed in 2020 by an American drone strike

What type of government does Iran have today?

A Shia Islamic theocracy that claims to enforce gods will on earth.

Religious revolutionaries do not intend to give up their revolution.

Who founded the Saud Dynasty and when?

Muhammad Ibn Saud in 1740, naming it Saudi Arabia.

What are the two major deserts in Saudi Arabia?

An-Naruto (devils anvil) and Rub’ al-khali (empty quarters).

What was the 1744 religious-political alliance that shaped Saudi Arabia?

The Saud family allied with Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab ( who othed of aliegsance to Ibn Saud), founding Wahhabism and establishing religious control. Therefore, Wahhabi was allowed to dictate religious life.

What is Wahhabism?

Extreme Sunni fundamentalist ideology that advocates violent jihad and views a Shia as rejecters of the religion. They believe that Muslims should give unquestioned allegiance to a leader.

What are three main population centers in Saudi Arabia?

Jeddah, Mecca, Medina

What and where is the capital of Saudi Arabia?

Riyadh, in Najd region.

Where is Saudi Arabia’s Shia minority?

Eastern Province, where most oil and gas pipelines are — vulnerable to Sabatoge.

Who assumed leadership in 1901 and led Saudi unification?

Ibn Saud.

How did Ibn Saud take control of Mecca and Medina?

He defeated the hashemites in 1920 and took the Hejaz region.

What was the significance of the 1927 treaty with the British?

It recognized Ibn Saud as ruler of Najd and Hejaz, giving him control over islams holiest cities?

When did Saudi Arabia officially become a kingdom?

1932, being called Saudi Arabia

Who discovered oil in Saudi Arabia and when?

Standard oil of California in 1932, later forming Aramco.

Why is oil important to Saudi Arabia’s role in the world?

It made the county a major player in geopolitics, especially starting in WWII.

What was the significance of the 1979 grand mosque sizeure in Mecca?

It caused a national return to Strict Wahhabism and anti-western sentiment especially in education, influencing Osama Bin Laden.

9/11

15 of the 19 attackers were Saudi nationals and al-qaeda was wahhabi inspired.

Caused by tensions between modernization (westernization) and fundamentalist (strict religion and Wahhabism), as Al-qeada is anti-west.

Who is Mohammad bin Salman?

Crown prince of Saudi Arabia since 2017, planner of vision 2030.

He tries to implement social reforms to open up Saudi Arabia, like allowing women to drive cars and reopen cinemas. And supporting free-market economics, but he is oppressive/authoritarian.

American Alliance with Saudi Arabia.

the US provides military protection and remains a key ally. In 1990, Iraq invaided Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia allowed the US to base troops.

Saudi Arabaias main rivals?

Iran (Shia state that supports anti-Saudi militias like the Houthi’s, hezbollah, and Yemeni Assad regime, and hamas).

Saudi Arabia fears that Iran may acquire nuclear weapons, and it Iran succeeds, so will Saudi Arabia.

Vision 2030

A plan to diversify economy beyond oil and promote limited Social reforms (under crown prince MBS)

What is the scandal that MBS is linked to?

the 2018 murder of journalist Jamal khashoggi.

Why do Saudi’s oppose democracy?

Elites don’t trust popular rule, saying poeple might choose the wrong leaders.

Arabian relationship with Israel

All of Arabia has been opposed to Israel, but Saudi Arabia has began to normalize relations with Israel. Even though it is at the expense of the Palestinian people.

Pan-Arab nationalism

Saudis oppose this idea of a single Arab state spanning the entire region.

Brexit

in 2016, UK voted to leave the EU because they feared over sovereignty (self-rule). Since then, the British have been seeking to be a part of an alliance. After decolonization, the UK declined and it was not as powerful as it used to be.

Pythias

Greek explorer who sailed as far as Iceland in 330 BCE

Territorial history of the UK

Romans invaded much of UK in 1st century AD, left in 400s.

Angles, Saxon, jutes, invaded from Denmark and Germany (angleland name came from).

Scotti came from Ireland, and Anglo-Saxons later drove out Vikings in 9th century.

Norman (from France) ruler William the Conqueror landed in Hastings, winning the battle of Hastings and became king in 1066 (reorienting Uk to Western Europe).

English Dynasties

Platagenets, Magna Carta (1215, foundation of modern legal system), Tudors.

King Henry VIII created the Church of England, breaking from Rome.

James I unified England and Scotland

Elizabeth I strengthened England.

1707 Acts of Union

established a single government for British island, increasing trade.

In 1801 Ireland was added the UK, forcingly.

British empire - strengths

Strong navy, Industrial Revolution, colonization

Navy controlled : cape of good hope, Gibraltar, trade routes to India and Caribbean, strait of malacca and Suez Canal.

European Economic Community (EEC) —> later EU

Following WWII, the UK sought to find a place.

France vetoed its entry into this community, since the French president wanted it to be ruled by France.

UK chose to stay close to the US and EEC. (Britain economy was largely industrial and commercial, and France feared that it would interfere with the agriculture economies of the EEC, and that UK would dethrone France)

Way to end two centuries of warfare through economic unity (one market, no borders or tarrifs) and a single currency (euro) to compete with US economy.

1956 Suez Crisis

Marked that the US was the new global world power/boss. When UK and France tried to occupy the Suez Canal, the US forced them out.

UK foreign policy

Uk is a member of five-eyes intelligence sharing community

Strong partnership with the US

E3 format where UK, Germany, and France work together diplomatically, like the Iranian nuclear agreement.

Poland fears German and Russian powers, and UK sees Poland as eastern power.

“Soft power”

the english language makes the UK’s higher-education system, sports, music, and tourism a power

Challenges of UK

Scotland independence, and if Scotland becomes independent Northern Ireland might also want to leave.

“Thucydides Trap”

The fear that the rise of one power evokes in threatened nations like how the growth of Athenian power and fear it put on Sparta. (Now refers to the rise of China and emotions it puts on US)

Mountains and water are the key to understanding the past, present, and future of Greece

Greece Challenges

Greece is caught in between Europe and the Middle East, struggles with migration from Middle East.

Migration impacts economy, welfare, society, and Greece recieves no assistance from EU, many refugees flee from Syria’s civil war

The EU paid Turkey to stop migrants from going from turkey to Greece, making tensions between turkey and Greece larger.

Greece geography

Full of mountains, making it strategic (strategic depth) during invasions, but it means it has poor soil for agriculture. Therefore, relies on navy.

The Megali Idea

Idea to revive ALL historically greek lands inhabited by Greeks and unite them into one, having Constantinople as the capital.

Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913

War 1: Greece fought against Ottoman Turks

War 2: against Bulgaria

Wars caused millions of refugees and forced movement From balkans to Greece.

GREECE during WWI

Greece entered the war on the side of the Allies late, and Greek nationalists wanted to revive the Byzantine Empire.

Turks under Mustafa Kemal kept that from happening.

Greece during WWII

Greece suffered occupation by Germany and the Axis Powers, and was under a dictatorship. In 1944, Germans withdrew and the British entered.

1946-1946 Greek Civil War

Factions emerged, and war broke out after royalists won a majority vote to rule Greece, and Communists refused to accept. Royalists won, Americans supported and fought against communists, to prevent USSR to gain control in Mediterranean.

1967 coup d’etat Greece

Greek Military took power of the government following instability in 1950s-60s.

Greece foreign affairs

Greece joined NATO in 1952, reintroducing democracy in 1974, and was invited to the EEC, later EU in 1981.

Economic crisis of 2008

Greece’s economy was very weak, and was indebted by the 2008 crisis. Germany loaned money, but Greece budget was tight.

Turkish President Recap Erdogan

Creates conflict with xenophobic and nationalist speeches, and causing tensions with Greece to rise as he claims that many of Greek Aegean islands (Greece has over 6000 islands) belong to Turkey.

Cyprus

Cyprus emerged as its own republic, but Greece feels entitled to it. Greece wants control over the recently discovered gas fields.

gained independence in 1960 from UK

There are Greek majorities and Turkish minorities here. The GREEN LINE split the island into two, Greeks and Turks. In 1974, Turkey invaded to prevent a Greek domination, bringing the Greek military government down, and bringing democracy to Greece.

North Macedonia: Emerged when Yugoslavia split apart in 1990s, and has joined NATO.

Incirclik

Location of US air base in Turkey