Developmental ERQs

Maturation theory stages of development

The brain begins to develop a few weeks after conception, splitting into 3 main areas: hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain.

The hindbrain is vital survival functions, such as breathing, heart rate, as well as balance, posture, and coordination.

The midbrain’s primary role involves memory, sleep, consciousness and arousal

The forebrain regards personality, abstract thinking, decision making, risk taking behavior, and impulsivity.

This develops from back to front, with the areas of fastest growth including primary motor cortex, cerebellum, and the thalamus.

At 2-3 months old, the areas of fastest growth are parietal lobe, temporal lobe, primary visual cortex.

Brain development at 6-12 months includes the frontal cortex, this area of the brain plays a key role in higher cognitive functioning and decision making, however it does not fully develop until the 20s.

Maturation theory introduction (early)

Maturation theory, developed by Arnold Gesell, discusses how the development of the brain arises from genetic mechanisms, with babies having innate behaviors and core knowledge related to the physical and social world.

The newborn is pre-equipped for brain development and overtime, maturation takes place.

The process of maturation can be facilitated through interactions with the surrounding environment

Chugani aim

The aim of Chugani (1999)  study was to investigate the brain development of babies and toddlers via the activity of different regions of their brains.

Cugani (1999) Procedure

This study incorporated a cross-sectional research design, wherein the PET scans of infants and toddlers were compared.

The PET scans conducted on the participants investigated glucose metabolism within the brain.

The infants and babies were injected with radioactive glucose (so that it may be detected via the scanner), wherein the quantity of glucose detected within the brain correlated to the level of activity within that part of the brain

Chugani (1999) findings

It was found that babies develop neural connections, from the back of the brain towards the front.

Furthermore, the glucose metabolism in the brain’s of newborn babies is 30% lower than in adults

from ages 3-10 years old, the glucose metabolism is however greater than double that of adults

although within adolescence the glucose metabolism decreases towards adult levels.

Chugani (1999) strengths

A strength of this study is firstly that it incorporated a large sample, increasing the validity of the findings greatly as they are consistent in large quantities.

Furthermore, the study incorporated strong empirical evidence, in the quantitative data provided by the PET scans which provide definitive evidence in the counts of white/grey matter, as well as glucose metabolism of the participants.

Chugani Limitations

However, on the other hand this study does not take into consideration the immense effect that differences in environments can pose on brain development, thus overall participant conditions remain unknown.

Additionally, there are ethical concerns in the PET scans, which are highly invasive especially as the subjects are children.

Giedd et al (2004) aim

The study, Giedd et al (2004), aimed to investigate child and adolescent brain development by measuring changes in white and grey matter (neural connections and neurons) using MRI scans

Giedd et al (2004) procedure

The study used a repeated measures design as the same participants were used each time.

The study incorporated conducting MRI scans on participants aged between 6 and 20 years.

These scans were conducted every 2 years, with the data coming from an on-going brain imaging project at the Child Psychiatry branch of the US National Institute of Mental Health.

Giedd et al (2004) findings

The results showed that the brain's white matter increases in all four lobes of the brain throughout childhood and adolescence.

Grey matter showed an inverted U pattern due to an increase in early adolescence and dropping off in late adolescence.

The frontal lobe grey matter peaked at 11-12 years, with the parietal lobe grey matter peaking one year earlier and the temporal grey matter peaking at 16 years.

It was also found that the prefrontal cortex does not mature until early 20s.

Giedd et al (2004) strengths

A strength of this study is that there was no participant variability throughout experimentation, as it was longitudinal the same participants were utilized throughout and thus the results are consistent to those specific individuals,

going on from that there were no demand characteristics as the results were produced via an MRI, providing quantitative data, that provides biological evidence that are objective.

Giedd et al (2004) limitations

However, a limitation of this study is firstly that as the results are produced via an MRI it is artificial, lacking ecological validity,

and that the MRI can only show the structure of the brain, rather than specific brain activity.

Vgotsky zone of proximal development

Vygotsky argues that it was social interaction with a more knowledgeable other that led to development.

He viewed development as preceded by learning rather than leading to learning.

He proposed the zone of proximal development this is the difference between what we can do unaided and what a child can do with the help of a more knowledgeable other, who is anyone with a better understanding of the required skill or knowledge than the learner, which will eventually lead them to be able to add this skill to the list of things they may do unaided.

Vygotsky emphasized the importance of play as it allows children to take on different roles they would not have in real life, thereby extending their cognitive abilities

Vygotsky language development stages

Moreover, Vygotsky stressed the role of language development in stages and being parallel with cognitive development

where there is pre intellectual speech (under 12 months), including crying, laughing and gesturing to make contact,

autonomous speech (from 12 months), beginning to invent words and mimic words for objects as a means of communication.

Naïve speech (18-24 months), which is conveying wishes in simple language

communicative and egocentric speech (from 3 years old), wherein communicates meaning with others, uses private speech as part of working through a task, egocentric speech designed to help solve problems, and as the child grows older this usually becomes silent thinking

thus showing the link between language and thought.

Winser (2003) aim:

The aim of this study was to investigate development through language.

Winsler (2003) procedure

It involved observing and filming 3 and 4-year-olds in private speech while completing tasks in kindergarten.

Interviews with parents and teachers

Winsler (2003) findings

suggested those who talked to themselves the most also had the highest social skills. This supports the idea that children progressed at their own pace through social interaction.

Winsler (2003) strengths

A strength of this study was that it was naturalistic, and observed children completing regular tasks, and behaving as normal in a natural environment thus maintaining high ecological validity.

Winsler (2003) limitations

A limitation however was that the social skills of the children were not well operationalized, in that the reports of teachers and parents are subject to biases and are not objective or especially reliable.

Nichols (1996) aim

The aim of this study was to find out if children working in groups would learn more effectively than if they were working alone.

Nichols (1996) procedure

It implemented a sample of 90 high school geometry students in the USA randomly allocated to one of three groups for a semester.

Wherein group one spent half a semester of cooperative group learning and half semester of traditional lecture.

Group 2 spent half a semester of traditional lecture, then half a semester of cooperative group learning, and group 3 spent a full semester of traditional learning. 

Each class met daily for 18 weeks for 55 minutes and was taught by the same teacher and had the same course.

Nichols (1996) findings

 It was found that groups 1 and 2 showed higher motivation than group 3, and that motivation was at its highest during the cooperative group part of the course.

Nichols (1996) strength

A strength of this study is that it takes place in a naturalistic learning environment, wherein there is high ecological validity, that allows the findings of the study to be easily applicable to real life scenarios.

Nichols (1996) weaknesses:

However, an immense limitation of the study is that it measures motivation as opposed to learning, meaning its claims that group learning led to cognitive development is not entirely supported

Low generalisability due to USA sampling.

Piaget intro (early)

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development proposes that we move through four distinct and sequential stages from birth to adulthood in developing our cognitive abilities.

Each stage in the process is linked to an approximate chronological age range.

Piaget also suggested that individuals do not develop the mental capabilities of a later stage without first having acquired those of an earlier stage.

Furthermore, the rate at which each person proceeds through the stages may vary, but according to Piaget, everyone proceeds through these stages in the same order.

Piaget believed ‘biological readiness’ to be an essential component of cognitive development.

Therefore, he argued, children learn ‘developmentally appropriate’ skills by interacting with their social and physical environments when they are biologically ready.

Piaget stages:

The first stage is the sensorimotor stage (0- 2 years). During this stage, infants begin to develop object permanence and goal directed behavior.

The second is the preoperational stage (2-7 years). Within this stage thought becomes more sophisticated and complex, children begin to become more able to internally represent events, and develop symbolic thinking.

The next stage is the concrete operational stage (7-12). The thinking of concrete operational children revolves around what they know, and what they can experience via their senses, ie. what is concrete.

The final stage is formal operations (12+), which is signified via logical thinking, as well as problem solving, problem creation, and finding out methods to investigate problems.

Bailleregon (1986) aim:

 The aim of this study was to test Piaget's claim that children do not demonstrate object permanence until around 6 - 8 months.

Baillergeon (1986) procedure

The sample consisted of 40 healthy, full-term infants. 20 were 5.5 to 6-months-old and 20 were 7 to 8-months-old.

The infants sat in front of a small screen; to the left of this screen was a ramp.

Before the experiment began, the infants watched as the screen was raised to show them that there was nothing behind it and then lowered again.

A toy car then rolled down the ramp, passing behind the screen and exiting on the other side.

The infants watched this twice. The infants were then shown one of two conditions.

Condition 1: When the screen was raised, a box had been placed behind the screen but not on the ramp. This was the "possible event."

Condition 2: The box stood on top of the ramp, blocking the car's path. This was the "impossible event.".

Baillergeon (1986) findigns

The results found that the babies stare longer at the "impossible" situation, which was taken to suggest confusion or surprise.

Baillergeon (1986) strengths:

A strength of this study is that it had a large sample size, thus a high internal validity,

and repeated measures design controls that for individual difference

Baillergeon (1986) weaknesses

However, the method for evaluating the baby's surprise/confusion is slightly dubious, as they may have other reasons for staring at the set up outside of these emotions.

Compare/contrast cognitive development

Both theorists believed that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning.

Both theorists acknowledge the role of biological maturation in a child's development.

Piaget argued that cognitive development is a universal process that occurs in defined stages.

Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development.

Vygotsky places more emphasis on the role of language in development whereas Piaget does not address this.

Informed consent + study name

Informed consent is an ethical principle in psychological research that ensures participants voluntarily agree to participate in a study after being fully informed about the nature, purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits of the research.

Researchers must provide clear and comprehensible information, allowing participants to make an autonomous decision about their involvement.

If an individual is underage, a parental guardian will have to provide informed consent on their behalf.

A study that highlights the necessity of informed consent is Giedd et al.

Do no harm

"Do no harm" is another ethical principle in psychological research that emphasizes the responsibility of researchers to avoid causing physical, emotional, or psychological harm to participants.

This principle requires researchers to minimize any potential risks or discomforts associated with the study and ensure that participants' well-being is prioritized throughout the research process.

It involves conducting risk assessments, providing appropriate support or debriefing when necessary, and ensuring that participants are not exposed to undue distress, manipulation, or exploitation.

A study that highlights the necessity of do no harm is chugani (1999)