Fall 2025 AP Human Geography Unit 4 Political Patterns and Processes

Antecedent Boundary

A boundary that was drawn across an area prior to the area becoming substantially-populated (e.g. border between Malaysia and Indonesia)

Autonomous Regions

An area of a country that has a degree of autonomy, or has freedom from an external authority. It is typical for it to be geographically distant from the country, or to be populated by a national minority (e.g. Kurdistan to Iraq, Chechnya to Russia)

Balance of Power

A condition of roughly equal strength between opposing countries or allies

Balkanization

Process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities

Boundary

An invisible line that marks the extent of a state's territory

Buffer State

A neutral state between two warring states (e.g. Mongolia, between Russia and China)

Centrifugal Forces

A force that divides people or countries

Centripetal Forces

A force or attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state. They provide stability, strengthen the state, help bind people together, and create solidarity

City-State

A sovereign state comprising of a city and its immediate hinterland (e.g. Singapore)

Cold War

The Cold War was a state of political and military tension after World War II between powers in the Eastern Bloc and powers in the Western Bloc (e.g. Cuban Missile Crisis)

Confederate Governmental Structure

A system of government in which nations or states agree to join together under a central government

Colonialism

An attempt by one country to establish settlements and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles in another territory

Colony

A territory that is legally tied to a sovereign state rather than being independent (e.g. British Virgin Islands to Great Britain)

Compact State

A state in which the distance from the center to any boundary does not vary significantly (e.g. Poland)

Commonwealth

A territory that has established a mutual agreement with another state for the benefit of each (e.g. Puerto Rico)

Cultural Political Boundaries

Political boundaries formed by differences in culture, such as religion or language

Demarcation

A demarcation is a line, boundary, or other conceptual separation between things. Geographically, demarcation might be the border that separates two countries or the river that divides two regions (e.g. Spratly Islands)

Devolution

The transfer or delegation of power to a lower level, especially by central government to local or regional administration. Synonymous to decentralization.

Domino Theory

The theory that if one nation goes under Communist control, neighboring countries will do the same

Economies of Scale

The greater the quantity of a good produced, the more economic the production as cost is spread over a greater volume.

Elongated State

A state with a long, narrow shape (e.g. Chile)

Enclave

An enclosed territory with a foreign territory around it (e.g. Lesotho)

Ethnonationalism

The powerful emotional attachment to one's minority nation within a larger state (e.g. Chechens)

European Union (EU)

A supranational organization of European countries formed after World War II to reduce trade barriers and increase cooperation among its members

Exclave

A part of a country that is separated from the rest of the country and surrounded by a foreign territory. To be a true exclave, all potential paths of travel from the exclave to the main region must cross over the territory only of a different region or regions having the equivalent governmental administrative level. (e.g. Law of the High Seas)

Federal State

An internal organization of a state that allocates most powers to units of local government (e.g. United States)

Forward Capital

A symbolically relocated capital city, moved for economic or strategic reasons (e.g. Brasilia and Astana)

Fragmented State

A state that includes several discontinuous territories (e.g. Indonesia)

Frontier

A zone separating two states in which neither of the states exercises political control (e.g. Antarctica)

Geometric Political Boundaries

Boundaries drawn with straight lines and arcs, as opposed to irregular lines and shapes (e.g. the boundaries of most African countries)

Gerrymandering

The redrawing of legislative boundaries entirely for electoral purposes, thereby benefiting the party in power

Heartland Theory

A theory that suggests that whoever owns Eastern Europe and Western Asia has the political power and capital to rule the world

Imperialism

The control of territory already occupied and organized by an indigenous society

Independence Movement

Usually a grassroots initiative by a group of people to gain independence from a larger political body (e.g. Arab Spring, )

Independent States

Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercises self-government, and usually sovereignty, over the territory. The opposite of independence is a dependent territory. Independence does not necessarily mean freedom.

Irredentism

Any political or popular movement intended to reclaim and reoccupy a "lost" or "unredeemed" area; territorial claims are justified on the basis of real or imagined national and historic (an area formerly part of that state) or ethnic (an area inhabited by that nation or ethnic group) affiliations. It is often advocated by nationalist and pan-nationalist movements and has been a feature of identity politics and cultural and political geography.

Landlocked State

A state without access to the sea (e.g. Bolivia)

Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea treaty, is the international agreement that resulted from the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III), which took place between 1973 and 1982.

Mercantilism

The process in which a colonizing mother country receives raw materials from its colonies

Microstate

A state that encompasses a very small area (e.g. Vatican City)

Multinational State

A state that contains two or more ethnic groups with traditions of self-determination that agree to coexist peacefully by recognizing each other as distinct nationalities (e.g. United Kingdom)

Municipalities

a city or town that has corporate status and local government.

Nation

A group of people with common cultural characteristics and identify themselves as a cohesive group (e.g. Kurds)

Nationalism

Belief exalting one nation above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests as opposed to those of other nations or supranational groups (e.g. "America First" versus Kyoto Protocol)

Nation-State

A state whose territory corresponds to that which is occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality (e.g. Japan)

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

An agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States, creating a trilateral trade bloc in North America.

Neo-Colonialism

The continued economic dependence of new states on their former colonial masters

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

An international organization created in 1949 by the North Atlantic Treaty to provide collective security to its members

Organic Theory

The theory that a state needs expansive land in order to prosper

Perforated State

A state that completely surrounds another one (e.g. Italy, to the Vatican)

Political Geography

The study of geography involving geographic states, borders, and how humans identify with them

Physical Political Boundary

A state's border that corresponds to a natural, real-life boundary (e.g. Rio Grande border between Mexico and the U.S.)

Prorupted State

An adhesive compact state with a large expansion (e.g. Thailand)

Redistricting

Redistricting is the process of drawing United States electoral district boundaries. In 32 states, the state legislature has primary responsibility for creating a redistricting plan, in many cases subject to approval by the state governor.

Relic Boundary

A boundary no longer observed but that still affects the present-day area (e.g. border between West and East Germany in Berlin)

Rimland Theory

A political theory that holds that control of Eurasia and Africa is achieved via control of the countries bordering the Soviet Union

Satellite State

A state that is formally independent but heavily influenced by another state (e.g. Bulgaria during the Soviet Union)

Scale

Often "scale" is used as a synonym for "scope," or "extent." The word "scale" can also be used as a synonym for a ruler--a measurement scale. Map scale is the proportion between a distance on a map and a corresponding distance on the ground (Dm / Dg). Another way to express map scale is with a graphic (or "bar") scale. Unlike representative fractions, graphic scales remain true when maps are shrunk or magnified, thus they are especially useful on web maps where it is impossible to predict the size at which users will view them.

School Districts

A geographical unit for the local administration of schools.

Sea Empire

Empires acquired using sea power, where settlements were set up along coasts, and excursions into the interior brought loot back to those settlements, where a ship would be waiting to take the resources home

Self-Determination

The concept that ethnicities have the right to govern themselves

Settlement Empire

An empire intended for longer residence, rather than used for immediate return with resources

Shatterbelt Regions

Areas that are constantly breaking up and/or fragmenting (e.g. Southeast Asia)

Sovereignty

The ability of a state to govern its territory from control of its internal affairs by other states

State

An area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government with control over its internal and foreign affairs (e.g. France)

Stateless Nation

A nation lacking a territory to call its own (e.g. Hmong, Kurds)

Subnational

Of, relating to, or designating a region or group within a nation. Below a national level.

Subsequent Boundaries

Drawn boundaries made with regard to ethnic differences (e.g. border between China and Vietnam)

Superimposed Boundaries

A boundary made through colonization without regard to prior ethnic/cultural patterns (e.g. borders of most African countries)

Supranationalism

The term applied to associations created by three or more states for their mutual benefit and achievement of shared objectives

Territorial Morphology

A phrase that states that the shape of a state influences how effectively the government can rule its territory

Territoriality

The creating of ownership over a defined space (e.g. the cause of World War I)

Terrorism

The unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims.

Theocracy

A government set up around a religious leader

Transnational

Extending or going beyond national boundaries

Unitary State

An internal organization of a state that places most power in the hands of central government officials

United Nations

A supranational organization formed in 1945 to promote peace, security, and international cooperation

Voting Districts

Voting Districts (VTDs) refer to the generic name for geographic entities, such as precincts, wards, and election districts, established by state governments for the purpose of conducting elections.

Warsaw Pact

The agreement between Communist states established in 1955 that opposed NATO

What are geometric boundaries?

Borders established on straight lines of latitude and longitude instead of physical or cultural boundaries.

Give examples of geometric boundaries in the US.

The border between Canada and the Lower 48 States, and the borders of states like Colorado, Wyoming, Arizona, and New Mexico.

What is a state?

A politically organized territory with a permanent population, a defined territory, and a government.

What is a stateless nation?

A group that represents one of the complications arising from the imperfect fit between nations and states.

What was the 1648 Peace of Westphalia treaty?

A treaty that marked the end of the Thirty Years' War in Europe and established the principles of national sovereignty.

What is a consequence of the Berlin Conference?

The arbitrary division of Africa among European powers, leading to long-term political and social instability.

What are unitary governments?

Governments where power is concentrated in a central authority. Examples include France and Japan.

What is a region that suffers instability due to its location between two different regions called?

Shatterbelt

Demarcated Boundaries

Boundaries that are marked by physical objects such as stones, pillars, walls, or fences.

What is a multistate nation?

A group of people who share a cultural or ethnic background but live in more than one country.

Name two examples of autonomous regions.

American Native American Reservations and Hong Kong.

What are natural boundaries?

Physical-political boundaries that follow an agreed-upon feature in the natural landscape.

What is supranationalism?

A political phenomenon where multiple countries form an organization or alliance that transcends national boundaries.

What are some examples of supranationalism?

The European Union (EU), the United Nations (UN), NATO, ASEAN, Artic Council, and OPEC

Why are choke points important?

They are strategic narrow passages that can control maritime traffic and trade routes.

What type of boundary is the 49th parallel between the US and Canada?

A geometric and antecedent boundary.

What is a resource boundary?

A boundary that separates natural resources that may be used by both countries.

How are boundaries typically established?

Countries delineate or define their boundaries by drawing them on a map through legal agreements.

What does it mean to attempt to acquire territories inhabited by the same nation?

It refers to irredentism, as seen when Russia attempted to annex territory in Ukraine with a significant Russian population.

Multinational State

A country with various ethnicities and cultures living inside its borders. Sometimes, there is a struggle to create a sense of unity among different peoples.

What is territoriality?

The connection of people, their culture, and their economic systems to a specific location.