AP Psychology Unit 1 PART B (Modules 1.5A-1.6D)

consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating).

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

sequential processing

processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems.

sleep

a periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)

circadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep. (Also called hypnic sensations.)

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN adjusts melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The affected person may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

REM sleep behavior disorder

a sleep disorder in which normal REM paralysis does not occur; instead, twitching, talking, or even kicking or punching may occur, often acting out one’s dream.

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

sensory receptors

sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful.

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses the brain can interpret.

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise); assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

subliminal

below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the _________ _________ as a just noticeable difference (jnd).

Weber’s law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light wave or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short gamma waves to the long pulses of radio transmission.

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

intensity

the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. ________ is determined by the wave’s amplitude (height).

cornea

the eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

retina

the light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

accommodation

the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement. Rods are necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.

cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. _____ detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a ___________ because no receptor cells are located there.

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.

Young–Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors — one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue — which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

audition

the sense or act of hearing.

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).

pitch

a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window.

cochlea [KOHK-lee-uh]

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

sensorineural hearing loss

the most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerve; also called nerve deafness.

conduction hearing loss

a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

cochlear implant device

for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated. (Also called place coding.)

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal coding.)

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers, and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

gustation

chemical sense; our sense of taste.

olfaction

chemical sense; our sense of smell

kinesthesis [kin-ehs-THEE- sis]

our movement sense; our system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

vestibular sense

our balance sense; our sense of body movement and position that enables our sense of balance.

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense can influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

embodied cognition

the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

ganglion cells

neurons located in the retina that transmit visual information from the photoreceptors to the brain.

stage 1 (NREM 1)

the initial stage of sleep characterized by light sleep and the transition between wakefulness and sleep, where one can be easily awakened. THETA WAVES

stage 2 (NREM 2)

the stage of sleep where heart rate slows, body temperature decreases, and sleep spindles occur, marking a deeper level of sleep. THETA WAVES SLOWER

stage 3 (NREM 3)

the stage of sleep characterized by deep sleep where delta waves are predominant, making it difficult to awaken the sleeper.

activation-synthesis theory (dreams)

a theory that proposes dreams are the brain's way of making sense of random neural activity during sleep, leading to the creation of a storyline.

consolidation theory (dreams)

the theory suggesting that dreams play a role in processing and consolidating memories from the day.

somnambulism

a sleep disorder characterized by walking or performing other complex behaviors while in a state of deep sleep.

synesthesia

a neurological condition where stimulating one sense involuntarily triggers a perception in another sense. example: someone might experience a color when hearing a sound, taste when reading a word etc.

nearsightedness

myopia; close objects look clear but far objects look blurry

farsightedness

seeing distant objects better than near objects

blue cones

sensitive to short wavelengths of light

green cones

sensitive to medium wavelengths of light

red cones

sensitive to long wavelengths of light

afterimages

visual illusions that occur after staring at an image, resulting in the perception of complementary colors. red/green, blue/yellow, black/white

dichromatism

deficiency in 1 of the color receptors (red, green, or blue)

monochromatism

deficiency in 2 of the color receptors OR all color receptors and can only see black and white

occipital lobes

part of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing

prosopagnosia

face blindness; can’t recognize their own face either

wavelength

frequency (pitch)

amplitude of wave

intensity (loudness)

volley principle

neurons alternate firing to process pitch sounds

thalamus

directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

gustatory cells

sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami (MSG), oleogustus (fatty)

supertasters

someone who has a more intense sense of taste than the average person

phantom limb syndrome

a psychological phenomenon that occurs when someone experiences a sensation of a limb that is no longer there; brain is reorganizing itself to adapt to the change

touch

tactile; we can sense pressure, warmth, cold and pain