Chapter 3: On Socrates's Two Favorite Questions

Logic

The study of the standards of correct reasoning

Pious

Roughly translated to morally right

Vague

When there are cases in which we aren’t sure whether the word applies or not

Ambiguous

When in a given context, can be interpreted in two or more ways

Factual Disagreement

Agreeing on the meaning of the words we are using, but disagreeing on the facts of the matter

Verbal Disagreement

Seeming to disagree about the facts of the matter, but in reality, the facts aren’t the issue; one party uses a word to mean one thing, and the other using the same word to mean something else entirely

Extensional Definitions

Assign meaning to a word by giving examples of what the word denotes or applies to

Ostensive Definition

Pointing at an example

Enumerative Definition

Listing, or enumerating, members of a word’s extension

Operational Definition

Specifies a step-by-step operation or test that determines whether the word applies in any given case

Paradigm Case

Citing one or more clear and easily recognizable examples of the application of the word

Intensional Definitions

Gives the meaning of a word by stating the characteristics or properties the objects in a term’s extension have in common and which lead us to apply the term to them; indicates the properties a word or phrase suggests

Necessary Condition

A condition that is required for something X

Sufficient Condition

A condition that guarantees that X will obtain; all that is needed for the obtaining of X

Lexical Definition

Presents the commonly used meaning of a word or phrase

Stipulative Definition

Introduces a new meaning for a word or phrase, or introduces an entirely new word (neologism)

Precising Definition

Makes the meaning of a vague word more precise as to cut down on borderline cases

Theoretical Definition

Explains meaning by providing a theory of the nature of something

Persuasive Definition

Uses emotional wording and appeals to emotions in order to influence people’s attitudes toward something

Synonymous Definition

Provides a synonym for the word, which works fine as long as one’s audience knows the meaning of the synonym

Analytical Definition

Breaks its meaning down into its elements

Genus

The general group that the things denoted by the word being defined belong to

Difference

Distinguishes these items from other kinds of things within the genus

Essential Properties

Those characteristics or attributes that an entity cannot lack and still remain part of the extension of the word or phrase

Argument

Reasons offered in support of a claim; made up of evidence, statement, premise, and conclusion

Evidence

The reason(s) for believing the claim is true (corresponds to reality)

Statement

Also known as “a proposition,” is “that which is expressed by a declarative sentence.”

Declarative Statement

Any sentence making a claim that is either true or false

Premise

A statement presenting evidence for a conclusion; properly expressed using declarative sentences

Conclusion

The statement said to be supported by the premises; also properly expressed using declarative sentences

Conclusion Indicator

A word or phrase that, in the context of an argument, flags the conclusion (e.g. therefore so, ergo, etc.)

Premise Indicator

A word or phrase that, in the context of an argument, indicates the presence of a premise (e.g. since, because, given that, etc.)

Deductive Argument

Put forward with the aim of proving its conclusion with complete certainty, in such a way that its conclusion must be true if its premises are all true

Inductive Argument

Intended to show that its conclusion is probably or likely true, though not certainly true, if its premises are all true

Valid Deductive Argument

Succeeds in its aim and shows that the conclusion must be true if its premises are true; if its premises are all true, then its conclusion must be true

Invalid Deductive Argument

Fails to succeed in its aim, and thus doesn’t show that its conclusion must be true if its premises are true; it is not the case that its conclusion must be true if its premises all are true

Strong Inductive Argument

Succeeds in its aim and shows that its conclusion is probably, though not certainly, true if its premises are all true if its premises all are true, then its conclusion is probably/likely true, though not certain

Weak Inductive Argument

Fails to succeed in its aim, and thus doesn’t show that its conclusion is probably true if its premises all are true; it is not the case that if its premise all are true, then its conclusion is probably, though not certainly, true