U.S. Foreign Relations Final Exam

Boris Yeltsin

First President of Russia (1991–1999). Key figure in dissolving the USSR and forming the CIS; defied the 1991 coup against Gorbachev; promoted democratic reforms and market privatization, though later criticized for corruption and authoritarian practices.

CSCE (Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe)

Cold War–era forum for East–West dialogue that eased tensions and promoted human rights. Produced the 1975 Helsinki Final Act (security, economic cooperation, human rights). Empowered dissidents, shaped post–Cold War security norms, and evolved into today’s OSCE.

Partnership for Peace (PfP)

NATO program launched in 1994 to engage former Soviet/Warsaw Pact states without immediate membership. Built military interoperability, supported democratic reform, stabilized post-communist Europe, and served as a pathway (but not a guarantee) to NATO expansion.

Polish Vote

Influential Polish American voting bloc concentrated in Midwestern swing states. Strongly supported NATO expansion due to historical grievances (Yalta). Their lobbying and electoral importance pushed bipartisan U.S. support for expanding NATO to include Poland.

Anthony Lake

Clinton’s National Security Advisor (1993–1997). Chief architect of NATO expansion, framing it as an “insurance policy” against future Russian resurgence and a way to integrate Central/Eastern Europe into a secure, democratic West.

Three No’s (NATO–Russia Founding Act, 1997)

Political commitment that NATO had no intention, plan, or reason to deploy nuclear weapons in new member states. Meant to reassure Russia while allowing NATO enlargement to proceed.

Humanitarian War (Humanitarian Intervention)

Use of military force without state consent to stop mass atrocities. Exemplified by NATO’s Kosovo War, which halted ethnic cleansing but raised legal and moral debates over sovereignty, civilian harm, and Responsibility to Protect (R2P).

International Criminal Court (ICC)

Permanent court prosecuting genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and aggression. Supports post–Cold War peacekeeping by reinforcing accountability, strengthening international law, and complementing NATO and UN missions.

Jubilee 2000

Global debt-relief movement inspired by biblical Jubilee principles. Advocated cancellation of unpayable debts of poor nations, mobilized religious and civil society groups, and achieved significant debt forgiveness by 2000.

Richard Holbrooke

Key U.S. diplomat who drove NATO enlargement and brokered the Dayton Accords. Linked NATO’s post–Cold War relevance to stability in Central/Eastern Europe and demonstrated U.S. leadership in reshaping the alliance.