HHP EXAM 1

What is primary research?

Primary research is the direct collection of original data by researchers to answer a specific research question. It involves study design, data collection, and analysis conducted firsthand.

What is secondary research?

Secondary research summarizes and synthesizes existing primary studies to describe the current state of knowledge on a topic rather than collecting new data.

Name three types of secondary research articles.

Narrative reviews, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses.

What is a case study?

A detailed observation of a single individual or rare event used to describe unusual conditions or generate hypotheses.

One strength and one weakness of a case study.

Strength: Can study rare events or diseases. Weakness: Not generalizable due to very small sample size (often n = 1).

What is a case series?

An observational study describing multiple similar cases, often matched on characteristics, without a comparison group.

What is a cohort study?

An observational study that follows a group or groups over time to examine relationships between exposures and outcomes.

One strength and one weakness of cohort studies.

Strength: Can study large populations and real-world trends. Weakness: Lacks experimental control and cannot prove causation.

What is an experimental study (RCT)?

A study in which researchers intervene, randomly assign treatments, and control conditions to test causal relationships.

One strength and one weakness of randomized controlled trials (RCTs).

Strength: Can establish causation. Weakness: Expensive, complex, and sometimes unethical or impractical.

What is a placebo?

A treatment with no active effect that is indistinguishable from the real treatment and used to control for bias and placebo effects and allows for blinding.

Why are placebos valuable in experiments?

They reduce subject and observer bias and provide a controlled basis for comparison.

What is single-blind (subject) research?

Participants do not know which treatment they receive, but researchers do.

What is single-blind (observer) research?

Researchers do not know which treatment participants receive, but participants do.

What is double-blind research?

Neither participants nor researchers know which treatment is being administered.

What is an open-label study?

A study in which both researchers and participants know the treatment conditions.

What experimental design is considered the gold standard and why?

A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover design because it minimizes bias, controls confounding, allows causal inference, and uses subjects as their own controls.

What is the difference between association and causation?

Association means variables are related but one does not cause the other; causation means a change in one variable directly produces a change in another.

Give an example of association without causation.

Ice cream sales and drowning incidents increase together but neither causes the other.

What is anecdotal evidence?

A personal story or observation based on limited experience rather than systematic research.

When is anecdotal evidence useful?

When little or no scientific evidence exists, such as in rare diseases or early stages of investigation.

Should clinical practices change based solely on anecdotal evidence? Why or why not?

No, because clinical standards require reliable, systematic evidence to ensure safety and effectiveness.

What is a narrative review?

An expert-written summary of selected research chosen by the author to describe current understanding of a topic.

What is a systematic review?

A comprehensive, unbiased summary of research conducted using predefined methods to identify and evaluate all relevant studies.

What is a meta-analysis?

A systematic review that uses statistical techniques to combine results from multiple studies into a single quantitative conclusion.

Why are systematic reviews of RCTs higher on the evidence pyramid than individual RCTs?

Because they synthesize results from multiple high-quality studies using nonbiased methods, providing stronger and more reliable evidence.

When is a cohort study more appropriate than an RCT?

When randomization would be unethical or impractical, such as studying harmful behaviors or population-wide trends.

Which of the following best defines primary research?

A. A summary of previously published studies

B. Firsthand data collection by researchers

C. Expert interpretation of literature

D. Statistical pooling of past findings

B. Firsthand data collection by researchers

Which study design is best suited for examining rare diseases?

A. Randomized controlled trial

B. Cohort study

C. Case study

D. Meta-analysis

C. Case study

What is the main limitation of cohort studies?

A. Small sample sizes

B. Ethical constraints

C. Lack of experimental control

D. Inability to examine associations

C. Lack of experimental control

Which research design allows the strongest inference of causation?

A. Case series

B. Cohort study

C. Narrative review

D. Randomized controlled trial

D. Randomized controlled trial

What is the purpose of randomization in experimental research?

A. Increase sample size

B. Eliminate the need for blinding

C. Reduce selection bias

D. Improve generalizability only

C. Reduce selection bias

Which scenario is an example of association but NOT causation?

A. Exercise improving fitness

B. Smoking increasing lung cancer risk

C. Ice cream sales increasing with drowning incidents

D. Medication lowering blood pressure

C. Ice cream sales increasing with drowning incidents

In a doubleblind study:

A. Only participants know the treatment

B. Only researchers know the treatment

C. Both participants and researchers know

D. Neither participants nor researchers know

D. Neither participants nor researchers know

What best describes a placebo?

A. A highly effective treatment

B. An inactive treatment indistinguishable from the real one

C. A treatment used only in observational research

D. A treatment that guarantees blinding

B. An inactive treatment indistinguishable from the real one

Which secondary research type uses statistical weighting of study results?

A. Narrative review

B. Cohort study

C. Systematic review

D. Meta-analysis

D. Meta-analysis

Why are systematic reviews of RCTs ranked higher on the evidence pyramid than individual RCTs?

A. They are easier to conduct

B. They eliminate bias entirely

C. They combine evidence from multiple highquality studies

D. They replace the need for primary research

C. They combine evidence from multiple highquality studies