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Genes
Segments of DNA that contain hereditary information and maintain structure across generations.
Chromosome
A strand that pairs with genes, composed of DNA, and found in matched pairs within cells.
DNA
Double stranded molecule that serves as a template for RNA.
Behavior
A mixture of genetics and environmental factors.
Phenotype
Observable traits of an organism.
Genotype
The genetic makeup of an individual.
Homozygous
Having identical pairs of genes on two chromosomes.
Heterozygous
Having unmatched pairs of genes on two chromosomes.
Dominant gene
A gene that can show effects in both homozygous and heterozygous conditions.
Recessive gene
A gene that can show effects only in a homozygous condition.
Punnett square
A diagram used to predict the genetic makeup of offspring from parental genes.
Mutation
A heritable change in the DNA molecule.
Epigenetics
The study of changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence.
Methylation
The addition of histone tags to DNA which influences gene expression.
Heritability
The extent to which variations in characteristics can be attributed to genetic differences.
Evolution
The change in frequency of various genes in a population over generations.
Neurons
Cells that receive information and transmit it to other cells.
Sensory neuron
Neurons that carry signals from sensory receptors to the spinal cord.
Motor neuron
Neurons that carry signals from the spinal cord to muscles.
Interneuron
Neurons that connect within a specific region of the nervous system.
Afferent axon
An axon that carries information into a structure.
Efferent axon
An axon that carries information away from a structure.
Glia
Cells that provide support and nourishment to neurons.
Astrocytes
A type of glial cell that supports and regulates nutrient flow to neurons.
Oligodendrocytes
Glial cells that create myelin sheaths in the CNS.
Schwann cells
Glial cells that create myelination in the PNS.
Microglia
Glial cells involved in immune response in the brain.
Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)
A selective barrier that protects the brain from harmful substances.
Active transport
The process of pumping chemicals from the blood into the brain against their concentration gradient.
Glucose
The primary energy source for neurons.
Thiamine
A vitamin necessary for the use of glucose, deficiency can lead to neuron death.
Resting Membrane Potential
The electrical charge difference across a neuron's membrane at rest.
Action Potential
A rapid rise and fall in voltage across a neuron's membrane signaling the transmission of a nerve impulse.
EPSP
Excitatory postsynaptic potential that depolarizes the neuron's membrane and increases the likelihood of firing an action potential.
IPSP
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential that hyperpolarizes the neuron's membrane, decreasing the likelihood of firing.
Voltage-gated channels
Protein channels that open in response to changes in voltage across the membrane.
All or none law
The principle that the strength of a nerve impulse is independent of the strength of the stimulus.
Refractory period
A period following an action potential in which a neuron cannot fire another action potential.
Synapse
The junction between two neurons where chemical communication occurs.
Neurotransmitters (NTs)
Chemicals released from neurons that transmit signals across synapses.
Exocytosis
The process of release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft.
Reuptake
The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after signaling.
Autoreceptors
Receptors located on the presynaptic neuron that regulate neurotransmitter release.
Gap junction
A specialized intercellular connection that allows for direct electrical communication between cells.
Glutamate
The principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)
The principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with reward, motivation, and motor control.
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.
Epinephrine
A neurotransmitter also known as adrenaline, important in stress response.
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.
Endorphins
Neuropeptides that act as natural painkillers and mood enhancers.
Substance P
A neuropeptide involved in the perception of pain.
Nitric oxide
A signaling molecule that influences various physiological processes.
Agonist
A substance that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonist
A substance that blocks or decreases the effect of a neurotransmitter.
Tolerance
A reduction in response to a drug after repeated use.
Withdrawal
Physical and psychological symptoms that occur upon discontinuation of a drug after repeated use.
Addiction
Compulsive drug seeking and use despite negative consequences.
Psychoactive drugs
Chemicals that affect brain function and alter perception, mood, or behavior.
Stimulants
Drugs that increase neural activity and boost mood and alertness.
Depressants
Drugs that decrease neural activity and slow down bodily functions.
Opiates
Drugs derived from the opium poppy that provide pain relief and euphoria.
Hallucinogens
Drugs that alter perception, thought, and mood.
Neuroanatomy
The study of the anatomy of the nervous system.
Medulla
A structure in the brainstem that controls vital reflexes and autonomic functions.
Pons
A part of the brainstem that controls sleep and arousal.
Cerebellum
Region of the brain involved in movement coordination and balance.
Thalamus
The brain's main relay station for sensory information.
Hypothalamus
A brain region that regulates vital functions including hunger, thirst, and temperature.
Basal ganglia
A group of nuclei involved in coordinating movement and behavior.
Amygdala
A brain structure involved in emotion regulation and fear response.
Hippocampus
A region of the brain critical for forming new memories.
Cerebral cortex
The outer layer of the brain involved in complex thought processes.
Primary sensory cortex
The part of the cortex that processes sensory information.
Motor cortex
The brain area that controls voluntary movements.
Lateralization
The specialization of certain functions in one hemisphere of the brain.
Broca's area
Brain region responsible for language production.
Wernicke's area
Brain region involved in language comprehension.
Aphasia
Language impairment due to brain damage.
Mood disorders
Mental health disorders characterized by persistent feelings of sadness or fluctuations in mood.
Depression
A mood disorder marked by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest.
Bipolar disorder
A mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania.
Antidepressants
Medications used to treat depression.
Monoamine hypothesis
A theory suggesting that depression is associated with low levels of monoamines in the brain.
Neurotrophic hypothesis
A theory suggesting that low levels of BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) contribute to depression.
Schizophrenia
A severe mental disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking.
Positive symptoms
Symptoms of schizophrenia that add to normal behavior, such as hallucinations.
Negative symptoms
Symptoms of schizophrenia that reduce normal functions, such as lack of motivation.
Cortical blindness
Loss of vision due to damage to the visual areas of the brain, not the eyes.
Sensory receptors
Cells that respond to specific types of stimuli and convert them into neural signals.
Auditory transduction
The process by which sound waves are converted into neural signals in the inner ear.
Phototransduction
Conversion of light into electrical signals in the retina.
Classical conditioning
Learning process that involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.
Operant conditioning
Learning process where behaviors are modified by their consequences.
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
A long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons.
Implicit memory
Memories that are not consciously recalled but influence behavior.
Explicit memory
Memories that can be consciously recalled, such as facts and experiences.
Episodic memory
Memory for personal experiences and specific events.
Semantic memory
Memory for facts and general knowledge.
Skill learning
The ability to learn and perform tasks that require practice and coordination.
