BP final

Genes

Segments of DNA that contain hereditary information and maintain structure across generations.

Chromosome

A strand that pairs with genes, composed of DNA, and found in matched pairs within cells.

DNA

Double stranded molecule that serves as a template for RNA.

Behavior

A mixture of genetics and environmental factors.

Phenotype

Observable traits of an organism.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an individual.

Homozygous

Having identical pairs of genes on two chromosomes.

Heterozygous

Having unmatched pairs of genes on two chromosomes.

Dominant gene

A gene that can show effects in both homozygous and heterozygous conditions.

Recessive gene

A gene that can show effects only in a homozygous condition.

Punnett square

A diagram used to predict the genetic makeup of offspring from parental genes.

Mutation

A heritable change in the DNA molecule.

Epigenetics

The study of changes in gene expression that do not involve changes to the underlying DNA sequence.

Methylation

The addition of histone tags to DNA which influences gene expression.

Heritability

The extent to which variations in characteristics can be attributed to genetic differences.

Evolution

The change in frequency of various genes in a population over generations.

Neurons

Cells that receive information and transmit it to other cells.

Sensory neuron

Neurons that carry signals from sensory receptors to the spinal cord.

Motor neuron

Neurons that carry signals from the spinal cord to muscles.

Interneuron

Neurons that connect within a specific region of the nervous system.

Afferent axon

An axon that carries information into a structure.

Efferent axon

An axon that carries information away from a structure.

Glia

Cells that provide support and nourishment to neurons.

Astrocytes

A type of glial cell that supports and regulates nutrient flow to neurons.

Oligodendrocytes

Glial cells that create myelin sheaths in the CNS.

Schwann cells

Glial cells that create myelination in the PNS.

Microglia

Glial cells involved in immune response in the brain.

Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)

A selective barrier that protects the brain from harmful substances.

Active transport

The process of pumping chemicals from the blood into the brain against their concentration gradient.

Glucose

The primary energy source for neurons.

Thiamine

A vitamin necessary for the use of glucose, deficiency can lead to neuron death.

Resting Membrane Potential

The electrical charge difference across a neuron's membrane at rest.

Action Potential

A rapid rise and fall in voltage across a neuron's membrane signaling the transmission of a nerve impulse.

EPSP

Excitatory postsynaptic potential that depolarizes the neuron's membrane and increases the likelihood of firing an action potential.

IPSP

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential that hyperpolarizes the neuron's membrane, decreasing the likelihood of firing.

Voltage-gated channels

Protein channels that open in response to changes in voltage across the membrane.

All or none law

The principle that the strength of a nerve impulse is independent of the strength of the stimulus.

Refractory period

A period following an action potential in which a neuron cannot fire another action potential.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where chemical communication occurs.

Neurotransmitters (NTs)

Chemicals released from neurons that transmit signals across synapses.

Exocytosis

The process of release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft.

Reuptake

The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after signaling.

Autoreceptors

Receptors located on the presynaptic neuron that regulate neurotransmitter release.

Gap junction

A specialized intercellular connection that allows for direct electrical communication between cells.

Glutamate

The principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)

The principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with reward, motivation, and motor control.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and alertness.

Epinephrine

A neurotransmitter also known as adrenaline, important in stress response.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

Endorphins

Neuropeptides that act as natural painkillers and mood enhancers.

Substance P

A neuropeptide involved in the perception of pain.

Nitric oxide

A signaling molecule that influences various physiological processes.

Agonist

A substance that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or decreases the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Tolerance

A reduction in response to a drug after repeated use.

Withdrawal

Physical and psychological symptoms that occur upon discontinuation of a drug after repeated use.

Addiction

Compulsive drug seeking and use despite negative consequences.

Psychoactive drugs

Chemicals that affect brain function and alter perception, mood, or behavior.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase neural activity and boost mood and alertness.

Depressants

Drugs that decrease neural activity and slow down bodily functions.

Opiates

Drugs derived from the opium poppy that provide pain relief and euphoria.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter perception, thought, and mood.

Neuroanatomy

The study of the anatomy of the nervous system.

Medulla

A structure in the brainstem that controls vital reflexes and autonomic functions.

Pons

A part of the brainstem that controls sleep and arousal.

Cerebellum

Region of the brain involved in movement coordination and balance.

Thalamus

The brain's main relay station for sensory information.

Hypothalamus

A brain region that regulates vital functions including hunger, thirst, and temperature.

Basal ganglia

A group of nuclei involved in coordinating movement and behavior.

Amygdala

A brain structure involved in emotion regulation and fear response.

Hippocampus

A region of the brain critical for forming new memories.

Cerebral cortex

The outer layer of the brain involved in complex thought processes.

Primary sensory cortex

The part of the cortex that processes sensory information.

Motor cortex

The brain area that controls voluntary movements.

Lateralization

The specialization of certain functions in one hemisphere of the brain.

Broca's area

Brain region responsible for language production.

Wernicke's area

Brain region involved in language comprehension.

Aphasia

Language impairment due to brain damage.

Mood disorders

Mental health disorders characterized by persistent feelings of sadness or fluctuations in mood.

Depression

A mood disorder marked by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest.

Bipolar disorder

A mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania.

Antidepressants

Medications used to treat depression.

Monoamine hypothesis

A theory suggesting that depression is associated with low levels of monoamines in the brain.

Neurotrophic hypothesis

A theory suggesting that low levels of BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor) contribute to depression.

Schizophrenia

A severe mental disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking.

Positive symptoms

Symptoms of schizophrenia that add to normal behavior, such as hallucinations.

Negative symptoms

Symptoms of schizophrenia that reduce normal functions, such as lack of motivation.

Cortical blindness

Loss of vision due to damage to the visual areas of the brain, not the eyes.

Sensory receptors

Cells that respond to specific types of stimuli and convert them into neural signals.

Auditory transduction

The process by which sound waves are converted into neural signals in the inner ear.

Phototransduction

Conversion of light into electrical signals in the retina.

Classical conditioning

Learning process that involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning

Learning process where behaviors are modified by their consequences.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons.

Implicit memory

Memories that are not consciously recalled but influence behavior.

Explicit memory

Memories that can be consciously recalled, such as facts and experiences.

Episodic memory

Memory for personal experiences and specific events.

Semantic memory

Memory for facts and general knowledge.

Skill learning

The ability to learn and perform tasks that require practice and coordination.