ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY FALL FINAL 2025-2026 - FILIPPI

What are the characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue?

Cardiac muscle tissue is striated, involuntary, and has intercalated discs.

What type of tissue is found on the epiphyses of bones to reduce friction?

Articular cartilage. (hyaline cartilage)

What tissue is well vascularized and has an extensive extracellular matrix?

Connective tissue.

What is the desired objective of a positive feedback mechanism?

To amplify a response or process, examples include childbirth and blood clotting.

What cellular junctions prevent leakage of fluid between cells?

Tight junctions.

List bones of the upper extremity.

Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges.

List bones of the shoulder girdle.

Clavicle and scapula.

List bones of the lower extremity.

Femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges.

List bones of the pelvic girdle.

Ilium, ischium, pubis.

What is the difference between proximal and distal?

Proximal means closer to the point of attachment, while distal means farther away.

Where are neurotransmitters released from?

From the synaptic vesicles in the axon terminals of neurons.

What protein, found in the skin, is responsible for waterproofing?

Keratin.

List and describe the connective tissue wrappings of muscle tissue.

Endomysium (surrounds individual muscle fibers), perimysium (surrounds fascicles), epimysium (surrounds the entire muscle).

In which cavity are the heart and lungs found?

Thoracic cavity.

What type of organic compound is an enzyme?

Protein.

What is the tarsal region?

The area of the ankle.

What is the significance of an epiphyseal plate?

It is the site of bone growth in length during childhood and adolescence.

In what layer of the skin will fingerprints and footprints be found?

Dermis.

What are fontanels?

Soft spots on an infant's skull where bones have not yet fused.

What is the bone called the 'atlas'?

The first cervical vertebra.

When myosin heads attach to actin, what do you call this complex?

Cross-bridge.

In muscle, what is the role of the antagonist?

To oppose the action of the agonist muscle.

What is a motor unit?

A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.

What is a flagellum?

A long, whip-like structure that aids in cell movement.

Describe the function of a tubercle on a bone.

It serves as a site for muscle attachment.

List the body systems and the functions of each.

Nervous (control), endocrine (hormones), muscular (movement), skeletal (support), circulatory (transport), respiratory (gas exchange), digestive (nutrient processing), urinary (waste elimination), reproductive (offspring production).

Describe exocrine glands.

Glands that secrete substances through ducts to the surface of an organ or tissue.

What would a physiological study focus on?

The functions and processes of the body.

What is hematopoiesis and where does it occur?

The formation of blood cells, occurring in the bone marrow.

What is tissue regeneration?

The process of replacing damaged or lost tissue.

Describe a hydrolysis reaction.

A chemical reaction that involves the breaking of a bond in a molecule using water.

What do you call the large opening at the bottom of the occipital bone?

Foramen magnum.

What is scar tissue composed of?

Fibrous connective tissue.

Describe a greenstick fracture and an individual who would have one.

An incomplete fracture where the bone bends and cracks, common in children.

What would you find running through the Haversian canal?

Blood vessels and nerves.

What movements do the hamstrings produce at the hip joint and knee joint?

Flexion at the knee and extension at the hip.

What are physical signs of melanoma?

Asymmetry, irregular borders, multiple colors, large diameter, and evolving shape.

What is an acid?

A substance that donates protons (H+) in a solution.

What are indirect functions of the muscular system?

Maintaining posture and producing heat.

When would you use the ABCDE rule?

To assess moles for signs of melanoma.

What is an isometric contraction?

A contraction where muscle length does not change while tension increases.

What is the physical location of an osteocyte?

Within lacunae in the bone matrix.

What type of protein are nails made of?

Keratin.

Which vitamin is activated in the skin when you are exposed to UV light?

Vitamin D.

Describe anaerobic glycolysis.

The process of breaking down glucose without oxygen to produce ATP.

What types of joints are hinge joints?

Joints that allow movement in one plane, like the elbow and knee.

How many quadrants and regions are found in the abdominopelvic cavity?

Four quadrants and nine regions.

Why is skeletal muscle fatigue a result of anaerobic respiration?

It leads to the accumulation of lactic acid.

What are intercalated discs found in cardiac muscle?

Specialized connections between cardiac muscle cells that facilitate synchronized contraction.

What are the three pigments that contribute to skin color?

Melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin.

Describe abduction and adduction.

Abduction is moving away from the midline, while adduction is moving toward the midline.

Describe smooth muscle cells.

Involuntary, non-striated muscle cells that are spindle-shaped.

Describe the histology of the skin.

The skin has an outer epidermis, a middle dermis, and an inner hypodermis.

What are the stages of bone fracture healing?

Hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus formation, and bone remodeling.

Describe the naming system for epithelial tissues.

Based on the number of layers and the shape of the cells (e.g., simple squamous, stratified cuboidal).

Describe the mechanical force of muscle contraction.

The sliding filament theory explains how myosin heads pull actin filaments to shorten the muscle.

Where are mucous membranes found?

Line body cavities that open to the exterior, such as the respiratory and digestive tracts.

Describe the different types of sections.

Midsagittal (left and right halves), frontal/coronal (front and back), transverse/cross (top and bottom).

What are bones made of?

Bone tissue, which includes organic components (collagen) and inorganic components (hydroxyapatite).

Describe the structure of skeletal muscle from superficial to deep.

Epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, muscle fibers.

What are inorganic compounds? List examples.

Compounds without carbon, such as water, salts, and acids.

What do osteoclasts and osteoblasts do?

Osteoclasts break down bone, while osteoblasts build new bone.

Describe serous membranes and list all six names.

Serous membrane: Thin membrane that covers the organs, allowing them to move past each other with less friction. Parietal Pericardium - Covers the outer surface of the heart, Visceral Pericardium - covers the inner surface of the heart, Parietal Pleura - covers the outer surface of the lungs, Visceral Pleura - covers the inner surface of the lungs, Parietal Peritoneum - covers the outer surface of the abdominal cavity, Visceral Peritoneum - covers the inner surface of the abdominal cavity

What do you call the tailbone?

Coccyx.

What do you call the part of the hair that extends from the scalp/skin?

Hair shaft.

Define ossification.

The process of bone tissue formation.

List the layers of the epidermis from superficial to deep.

Stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale.

List epithelial and connective tissue membranes.

Epithelial: mucous, serous, cutaneous; Connective: synovial.

Where is transitional epithelium found?

In the urinary bladder.

What are chondrocytes and what do they do?

Cells that produce and maintain cartilage.

Describe sudoriferous glands and differentiate between eccrine and apocrine glands.

Sweat glands; eccrine are found all over the body and help regulate temperature, while apocrine are found in specific areas and are associated with scent.

What bone is the shin bone?

Tibia.

What are identifying characteristics of a cervical vertebra?

Small body, transverse foramen, bifid spinous process.

What type of chemical reaction promotes cell growth/division and repair of worn-out tissues?

Anabolic reactions.

Which muscles belong to the hamstring group?

Biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus.

Which connective tissue is avascular?

Cartilage.

Describe the Haversian system.

The structural unit of compact bone, consisting of concentric lamellae surrounding a central canal.

Describe desmosomes.

Specialized cell structures that act as strong anchors between cells, particularly in tissues that endure machnical stress like skin and the heart.

List all the elements of a control system (feedback mechanism).

A stimulus that triggers a change, receptors that sense the stimulus, receptor sends information through the afferent pathway, control center that processes the information,efferent pathway carries out the signal from the control center to the effector, the effector carries out the response to the stimulus such as a muscle or a gland, the response influences the original stimulus.

What is the function of smooth muscle?

The function of a smooth muscle is to produce involuntary contractions to move substances through organs and control the size of hollow tubes, helping with digestion and nutrient collection.

Why is the hyoid bone unique?

It is the only bone that does not articulate with any other bone.

What is the function of the endocrine system?

The function of the endocrine system is to regulate body's function using hormones, influencing mood, growth, metabolism, reproduction, and development.

Describe the feedback mechanism of hypocalcemia.

PTH detects low blood calcium levels and activates osteoclasts to dissolve the bone.

Describe anatomical position.

Standing upright, facing forward, arms at the sides, palms facing forward, feet planted.

What is the function of the integumentary system?

The function of the integumentary system is to protect the body from things like germs and injuries. It also helps thermoregulate via sweating, shivering, or keeping heat in. Another function is sensory reception (touch, temperature, pressure, pain). Additional functions include Vitamin D synthesis and the excretion of urea and uric acid.

Define anterior/ventral and posterior/dorsal.

Anterior/ventral refers to the front, while posterior/dorsal refers to the back.

Describe simple squamous epithelium.

Simple Squamos Epithelium is a tissue made of thin, flat, and scale-like cells. It only consists of a single layer of cells, and this helps it with absorption, secretion, and diffusion. Thus, it's found where substance need to pass through quickly.

What type of macromolecule is ATP categorized as?

Nucleic Acid

List and describe the positions of the nine abdominopelvic regions.

Right Hypochondriac: contains liver, gallbladder, (upper right) Epigastric Region: just below the sternum (upper middle) Left Hypochondriac: contains spleen (upper left) Right Lumbar: right kidney, parts of bowel (mid right) Umbilical Region: belly button (center) Left Lumbar: left kidney, spleen (mid left) Right Iliac: appendix (lower right) Hypogastric: pubic region (lower middle) Left Iliac: left ovary and uterine tube in females (lower left)

What is the function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum?

The sarcoplasmic reticulum regulates muscle contraction by storing and releasing calcium ions.

Define muscle atrophy.

Muscle Atrophy is the thinning of muscle tissue, which can lead to weakness, reduced mobility, and fatigue. Muscle Atropy can be caused by aging, inactivity, injury, or underlying diseases.

What is the only function of muscle?

The only function of muscle is to contract in order to produce force, friction and movement.

Describe the apical layer of epithelium.

The top layer of epithelial cells that faces the body surface or lumen. The apical layer of epithelium is the uppermost layer of cells that face either the external environment or an internal body cavity. It features structures like microvilli to increase surface area for absorption, or cilia to move substances along the surface. This layer is critical for functions such as secretion, absorption, and protection.

Using directional terms, describe the locations of the patellar and popliteal regions.

The patellar region is anterior to the leg and superior to the bones of the lower leg. The popliteal region is posterior to the patella and lies between the thigh and the calf on the dorsal side of the body.

What produces goose bumps?

Contraction of arrector pili muscles.

What is an articulation?

A joint where two bones meet. Articulation allows movement and stability.

What shortens during a muscle contraction?

The sarcomere.

Describe direct phosphorylation.

DIrect Phosphorlyation is the fastest way for cells to produce ATP, uses creatine phosphate to quickly generate ATP from ADP.

What are the three bones that make up the sternum?

Manubrium, body, xiphoid process.

Differentiate between endocrine and exocrine glands.

Endocrine gland: Ductless, produce release & hormones directly into the bloodstream, includes the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, and pancreas which work together as part of the endocrine system to maintain the bodies internal balance. Exocrine gland: Have ducts that carry their secretions to specific places in the body. These glands produce substances like sweat, saliva, and digestive enzymes that are released onto the skin or into body cavities. Together, endocrine and exocrine glands help the body stay balanced by sending hormones through the blood and releasing helpful substances through ducts.