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introspection
the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings, a process of self-observation and reflection on one's mental states
structuralism
a theory that studies the mind by breaking it down into its smallest components. The goal is to understand how these components work together to create complex mental processes.
functionalism
the theory of mind that holds that mental states should be understood in their relationship to physical functions and actions. In other words, mental entities like desires, memories, pain, etc., are not things that exist purely in the mind.
psychoanalytic
relating to a method of therapy that explores unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories
behaviorism
a psychological theory that studies how people and animals learn through observable behaviors. It's based on the idea that behavior is a result of conditioning, which is a process of reinforcement and punishment.
humanism
a perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole individual and stresses concepts such as free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization.
cognitive perspective
a psychological approach that focuses on mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. It examines how people understand and think about the world around them.
Biopsychology (or neuroscience)
the branch of psychology that explores the connections between biological processes and behaviors, focusing on how the brain and nervous system influence thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Evolutionary approach
a theoretical perspective that examines behavior and mental processes through the lens of evolution, focusing on how natural selection influences psychological traits.
Social Culturals
a perspective that examines how social and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes, emphasizing the importance of context in understanding human psychology.
Biopsychosocial
a model that integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to explain health and illness, emphasizing the interplay between these domains.
eclectic
a therapeutic approach that combines various techniques and theories from different psychological schools to tailor treatment to the individual needs of the client.
Wundt
known as the father of experimental psychology, he established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 and emphasized the study of conscious experience.
James
an influential psychologist who contributed to functionalism and wrote "The Principles of Psychology."
Calkins
an American psychologist who was the first woman president of the American Psychological Association and known for her work in self-psychology.
Watson
An influential psychologist who established behaviorism, Watson argued that psychology should focus on observable behavior rather than internal mental processes.
Pavlov
a Russian physiologist best known for his work in classical conditioning, particularly through experiments with dogs that demonstrated the conditioned reflex.
Floy Washburn
an American psychologist known for her research on animal behavior and the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology.
Hall
An American psychologist known for his work in developmental psychology and as the first president of the American Psychological Association. Hall's research focused on adolescence and education.
Freud
an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theories on the unconscious mind, the significance of dreams, and the development of personality through psychosexual stages.
Skinner
An American psychologist known for his work in behaviorism and operant conditioning, Skinner developed the concept of reinforcement and designed the Skinner box to study animal behavior.
Maslow
An American psychologist best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory in psychology that prioritizes human motivation based on a hierarchy of needs from basic to self-actualization.
Rogers
An American psychologist known for client-centered therapy and the concept of unconditional positive regard, emphasizing the importance of a supportive environment for personal growth.
Darwin
An English naturalist known for his theory of evolution by natural selection, which explains how species adapt and evolve over time through the process of survival and reproduction.
Piaget
A Swiss psychologist known for his work in developmental psychology, particularly for his theory of cognitive development in children.
heredity
The genetic transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring, influencing physical and behavioral traits.
environmental factors
influence the expression of genetic traits.
central nervous system
The complex network of nerve cells and tissues that coordinates the activities of the body, consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
peripheral nervous system
The part of the nervous system that includes all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord, responsible for transmitting signals between the central nervous system and the rest of the body.
autonomic nervous system
A division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate and digestion.
Somatic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles and transmits sensory information to the central nervous system.
sympathetic nervous system
A division of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for stress-related activities, often referred to as the "fight or flight" response.
parasympathetic nervous system
A division of the autonomic nervous system that promotes 'rest-and-digest' functions, helping to conserve energy and maintain homeostasis.
neuron
A specialized cell that transmits nerve impulses, serving as the basic building block of the nervous system.
glial cell
Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons, playing a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and forming myelin.
reflex arc
A neural pathway that controls a reflex action, consisting of a sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron.
sensory neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system.
motor neurons
Nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles or glands, enabling movement and responses.
interneurons
Neurons that transmit signals between sensory and motor neurons, playing a crucial role in processing information within the central nervous system.
all-or-nothing principle
The all-or-nothing principle states that a neuron either fires completely or not at all, meaning that once the threshold is reached, the action potential is initiated with full intensity.
depolarization
The process by which a neuron becomes less negative inside, allowing an action potential to occur.
refractory period
A brief time after an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire another action potential, ensuring the signal travels in one direction.
resting potential
The resting potential is the electrical charge difference across the neuron's membrane when it is not actively firing, typically around -70 millivolts.
reuptake
The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after transmitting a signal across the synapse.
threshold
The threshold is the critical level of depolarization that must be reached for an action potential to be initiated in a neuron.
excitatory
A type of neurotransmitter that increases the likelihood of an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron.
inhibitory
A type of neurotransmitter that decreases the likelihood of a neuron firing an action potential.
neurotransmitter
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons, influencing various physiological processes.
hormone
Chemical messengers produced by glands that regulate various physiological processes in the body.
pituitary gland
An endocrine gland located at the base of the brain that produces hormones regulating various bodily functions, including growth and metabolism.
dopamine
A neurotransmitter that plays a key role in reward, motivation, and motor control, influencing mood and behavior.
serotonin
A neurotransmitter that contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness, regulating mood, appetite, and sleep.
norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter and hormone involved in the body's response to stress, regulating attention, emotions, and blood pressure.
glutamate
The most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, playing a critical role in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory.
GABA
An inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system, playing a crucial role in regulating anxiety, mood, and sleep.
endorphins
Neurotransmitters that act as natural painkillers and mood enhancers, released during exercise, stress, or pain. They help to alleviate discomfort and induce feelings of pleasure.
substance p
A neuropeptide involved in the transmission of pain and inflammatory responses, acting as a messenger between the nervous system and immune system.
acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that plays a key role in muscle movement, memory, and learning. It is involved in transmitting signals between nerve cells and muscles.
adrenaline
A hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in the body's fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate, blood flow, and energy availability.
leptin
A hormone produced by adipose (fat) tissue that helps regulate energy balance and suppress appetite.
ghrelin
A hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite and plays a role in regulating energy balance and body weight.
melatonin
A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms, produced by the pineal gland in response to darkness.
oxytocin
A hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland, known for its role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, and during and after childbirth.
agonist
A substance that binds to a receptor and activates it, mimicking the action of a naturally occurring substance in the body.
Antagonist
A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a neurotransmitter or hormone, often used in pharmacology to counteract the effects of agonists.
Reuptake inhibitor
A substance that prevents the reabsorption of neurotransmitters back into the presynaptic neuron, increasing their availability in the synaptic cleft.
Stimulant
A substance that increases the activity of the central nervous system, resulting in heightened alertness, energy, and mood.
Depressant
A substance that reduces neural activity and slows down bodily functions, often used to treat anxiety and insomnia.
Hallucinogen
A class of drugs that alter perception, mood, and various cognitive processes, often inducing visual or auditory hallucinations.
Opioid
A class of drugs that are used to reduce pain and induce sleep, often derived from the opium poppy.
tolerance
A condition resulting from repeated use of a substance, leading to a decrease in its effects and requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect.
addiction
A chronic condition characterized by compulsive drug seeking, loss of control over usage, and the emergence of negative emotional states when not using the substance.
dependence
A state in which an individual relies on a substance to function normally, often accompanied by withdrawal symptoms when not using the substance.
withdrawal
The physical and psychological symptoms experienced after reducing or stopping intake of a substance to which one is addicted.
eugenics
A controversial social philosophy advocating for the improvement of human genetic traits through selective breeding and other interventions.
research question & problem statement
A specific inquiry guiding research that identifies a problem to be addressed, often framed to explore the relationship between variables or to test a hypothesis.
methodology
A systematic approach to research that outlines the methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data.
case study
A research approach that involves an in-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, or situation to explore complex phenomena in context.
experimental design
A plan for conducting scientific experiments to establish cause-and-effect relationships. It's a research method that involves carefully controlling variables and randomly assigning participants to groups.
non-experimental design
A research approach that does not involve manipulation of variables or controlled experiments. Instead, it observes and analyzes existing conditions or relationships among variables.
correlational research
A research method that examines the relationships between two or more variables without manipulating them, allowing for the identification of patterns and associations.
naturalistic observation
A research method that involves observing subjects in their natural environment without interference or manipulation, providing insights into their behavior in real-world settings.
quantitative research
A systematic investigation that primarily focuses on quantifying relationships, behaviors, or phenomena through statistical analysis and numerical data.
qualitative research
A research method that focuses on understanding human behavior and experiences through the collection of non-numerical data, such as interviews and observations.
hypothesis
A testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables in a study, often guiding research design and experimentation.
null hypothesis
A statement asserting that there is no effect or no difference in a particular situation, often used as a default position in statistical testing.
independent variable
A variable that is manipulated in an experiment to determine its effect on the dependent variable.
dependent variable
The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment to assess the effect of the independent variable.
brain stem
The part of the brain that connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord, responsible for regulating vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.
medulla
The lower part of the brain stem that controls autonomic functions such as heart rate and respiration.
reticular formation
A network of neurons located in the brain stem that plays a crucial role in regulating arousal, sleep-wake cycles, and filtering incoming stimuli.
cerebellum
A structure located at the back of the brain that is responsible for coordinating voluntary movements, balance, and posture.
occipital lobes
The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain and are primarily responsible for processing visual information, including color, shape, and motion.
temporal lobes
Located on the sides of the brain, the temporal lobes are primarily responsible for processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory.
cerebral cortex
The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher brain functions, including thought, perception, and voluntary movement.
limbic system
A complex set of structures in the brain that plays a crucial role in emotion, memory, and motivation, including key components such as the hippocampus and amygdala.
parietal lobes
Located near the top and back of the brain, the parietal lobes are involved in processing sensory information, spatial awareness, and the integration of sensory input.
frontal lobes
The frontal lobes are located at the front of the brain and are responsible for higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, planning, problem-solving, and controlling behavior and emotions.
split-brain research
A series of studies examining the effects of severing the corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres of the brain, to understand their individual functions and how they communicate.
brain plasticity
The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life, allowing for recovery from injury and adaptation to new experiences.
