germs guns and steel

What are the other commonly espoused answers to "Yali's questions," and how does Jared Diamond address and refute each of them?

Genetics, Cultural Superiority, and Geography

Why does Diamond hypothesize that New Guineans might be, on the average, "smarter" than Westerners?

Diamond hypothesizes that New Guineans might be, on average, "smarter" than Westerners because they live in a challenging environment that requires constant problem-solving, which may enhance cognitive abilities. This hypothesis is not a claim of overall superiority but an observation of how environmental challenges can impact mental acuity.

Why is it important to differentiate between proximate and ultimate causes?

Differentiating between proximate causes (immediate factors) and ultimate causes (underlying factors) is crucial for understanding why certain outcomes occur. Proximate causes are the direct, immediate reasons for an event, while ultimate causes address the deeper, more fundamental reasons that lead to those proximate causes. Diamond uses this distinction to explain why certain societies developed in particular ways based on their environmental contexts.

Do you find some of Diamond's methodologies more compelling than others? Which, and why?

Some of Diamond's methodologies are compelling because they integrate a wide range of disciplines (geography, biology, anthropology) to provide a comprehensive view of societal development. For instance, his use of comparative analysis across different societies and historical contexts helps illustrate his arguments about environmental influences on societal outcomes.

What is the importance of the order of the chapters?
Why, for example, is "Collision at Cajamarca" - which describes events that occur thousands of years after those described in the subsequent chapters - placed where it is?

the chapter "Collision at Cajamarca" is placed earlier to set the stage for understanding the broader patterns of societal development and conflict. By discussing a specific historical event first, Diamond frames the discussion about the underlying factors that led to such events, making the subsequent chapters' exploration of these factors more impactful

. How are Polynesian Islands "an experiment of history"? What conclusions does Diamond draw from their history?

The Polynesian Islands are considered "an experiment of history" because they offer a unique setting where different societies with similar starting conditions (isolated islands) evolved in varied ways. Diamond uses these differences to draw conclusions about how environmental and social factors shape societal development.

How does Diamond challenge our assumptions about the transition from hunter-gathering to farming?

Diamond challenges the idea that the transition from hunter-gathering to farming was a straightforward improvement. Instead, he argues that farming led to significant social inequalities, diseases, and other challenges, and that the transition was driven by environmental factors and resource availability rather than a linear progression of societal advancement.

How is farming an "auto-catalytic" process? Hows does this account for the great disparities in societies, as well as for the possibilities of parallel evolution?

Farming is "auto-catalytic" because it creates conditions that accelerate its own spread and development. Once societies adopted farming, it led to population growth and technological advancements, which in turn further facilitated farming. This process explains the disparities between societies and the potential for parallel evolution.

Why did almonds prove domesticable while acorns were not? What significance does this have?

Almonds proved domesticable because they could be selectively bred for desirable traits, unlike acorns, which are less amenable to such changes. This distinction highlights how certain plants' characteristics influence their suitability for domestication and agriculture.

How does Diamond explain the fact that domesticable American apples and grapes were not domesticated until the arrival of Europeans?

Diamond explains that domesticable American apples and grapes were not cultivated until Europeans arrived due to the lack of indigenous knowledge and agricultural practices suited to these plants. The introduction of European agricultural techniques enabled their domestication.

What were the advantages enjoyed by the Fertile Crescent that allowed it to be the earliest site of development for most of the building blocks of civilization? How does Diamond explain the fact that it was nevertheless Europe and not Southwest Asia that ended up spreading its culture to the rest of the world?

The Fertile Crescent had advantages like a wealth of domesticable plants and animals, suitable climate, and geographic conditions conducive to early agricultural development. Diamond argues that while the Fertile Crescent was an early center of development, Europe’s geographic and environmental diversity allowed it to spread these advancements more effectively.

How does Diamond refute the argument that the failure to domesticate certain animals arose from cultural differences? What does the modern failure to domesticate, for example, the eland suggest about the reasons why some peoples independently developed domestic animals and others did not?

Diamond refutes the notion that cultural differences are the reason for the failure to domesticate certain animals by showing that the traits required for domestication are not culturally variable but biologically inherent. The failure to domesticate animals like the eland suggests that domestication success is based on biological compatibility rather than cultural factors.

What is the importance of the "Anna Karenina principle"?

The "Anna Karenina principle" states that a successful domesticated species must meet multiple criteria, such as being able to breed in captivity and have a diet that can be provided by humans. This principle helps explain why only certain animals and plants were successfully domesticated.

How does comparing mutations help one trace the spread of agriculture?

Comparing mutations helps trace the spread of agriculture by revealing how agricultural practices and technologies spread through genetic evidence and cultural transmission, allowing researchers to track the diffusion of agricultural societies.

How does civilization lead to epidemics?

Civilization leads to epidemics because dense populations and close living quarters facilitate the spread of infectious diseases. The rise of agriculture and settled societies created conditions that allowed diseases to spread more easily and become more virulent.

How does Diamond's theory that invention is, in fact, the mother of necessity bear upon the traditional "heroic" model of invention?

Diamond argues that invention often arises from necessity rather than vice versa, challenging the "heroic" model that sees inventors as driven solely by inspiration. Necessity creates challenges that prompt inventive solutions.

According to Diamond, how does religion evolve along with increasingly complex societies?

- As societies become more complex, religion evolves to address and manage increased social organization and hierarchies. Religion often becomes more structured and intertwined with governance, reflecting the needs of larger, more complex societies.