Unit 1: Renaissance & Exploration

Renaissance

A cultural movement that began in Italy during the late 14th century, characterized by a revival of interest in classical art, literature, and learning.

Petrarch

An Italian scholar and poet, often called the "father of humanism," who greatly influenced the Renaissance through his writings and revival of classical texts.

Niccolo Machiavelli

An Italian diplomat and philosopher known for his political treatise "The Prince," which offers pragmatic advice on statecraft and power. Known for “it is better to be feared than loved.”

Baldassare Castiglione

An Italian courtier and author best known for his book "The Book of the Courtier," which outlines the ideals of courtly behavior and the qualities of a perfect Renaissance Man.

Michelangelo

An Italian sculptor, painter, and architect of the Renaissance, renowned for masterpieces such as the Statue of David and the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

Raphael

An Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance, known for works such as "The School of Athens" and his beautiful Madonnas.

Brunelleschi

An Italian architect and engineer of the Renaissance, best known for designing the Dome of Florence Cathedral and pioneering the use of linear perspective in art.

Individualism

A Renaissance ideology that emphasizes the moral worth of the individual, promoting independence and self-reliance.

Humanism

A Renaissance cultural and intellectual movement that emphasized the study of classical texts, human potential, and achievements, focusing on human values and experiences. Petrarch is the father of humanism.

civic humanism

A form of humanism that emphasizes the importance of active participation in civic life and the public good, blending classical ideas with a commitment to civic responsibility. It is associated with the Italian Renaissance

Christian humanism

A movement that combines Christian faith with humanist principles, emphasizing the study of classical texts and the importance of moral and ethical values derived from Christianity. It is associated with the Northern Renaissance

Medici Family

A powerful and influential family in Florence during the Renaissance, known for their patronage of the arts, politics, and banking. They revolutionized Florence's economy and culture, fostering the growth of Renaissance art and architecture.

printing press

A revolutionary invention created by Johannes Gutenberg that enabled the mass production of books and written material, significantly contributing to the spread of knowledge and literacy during the Renaissance. It is more closely associated with the Northern Renaissance than the Italian Renaissance.

Erasmus

A Dutch scholar and theologian, Erasmus was a leading figure of the Christian humanism movement. He is known for his works advocating for reform within the Church and for emphasizing the importance of education and classical texts.

Jan van Eyck

A Flemish painter known for his detailed and realistic oil paintings, particularly in portraiture and religious themes. He is often credited with perfecting the oil painting technique during the Northern Renaissance. He painted the famous Arnolfini Portrait.

Spanish Inquisition

An institution established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, aimed at maintaining Catholic orthodoxy in Spain by identifying and punishing heresy. The Inquisition mainly targeted Jewish and Muslim communities in Spain. They often used harsh and humiliating punishments against persecuted groups.

Reconquista

The period of history during which Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula sought to recapture territory from Muslim rule, culminating in the conquest of Granada in 1492.

Granada

The last Muslim kingdom in Spain, conquered in 1492, marking the end of the Reconquista.

Ferdinand & Isabella of Spain

The Catholic Monarchs of Spain who completed the Reconquista and established the Spanish Inquisition. They are known for their role in unifying Spain and promoting Catholicism. They also sponsored the voyages of Christopher Columbus during the Age of Exploration in 1492.

Henry VII of England

The first monarch of the Tudor dynasty, he reigned from 1485 to 1509 and is known for ending the Wars of the Roses, establishing a strong central government, and fostering economic stability in England.

Habsburgs

A prominent European dynasty that played a significant role in European politics and ruled over a vast empire. During the Renaissance period, they established their power through a series of dynastic marriages, which sometimes led to inbreeding.

Sejm

The legislative assembly of Poland, where the nobility gathered to discuss and decide on matters of state. It played a crucial role in the political system and governance of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Czechs of Bohemia

A West Slavic ethnic group primarily associated with the region of Bohemia in the Czech Republic, known for their cultural and historical significance in Central Europe. They fought in the Hussite Wars against Catholic crusaders.

Hussite Wars

A series of conflicts in the early 15th century in Bohemia, initiated by the followers of Jan Hus, seeking religious reforms and opposing the Catholic Church's authority.

Constantinople

The capital city of the Byzantine Empire, known for its strategic location along trade routes and its role as a center of culture and religion before falling to the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

Pope Julius II

A pope from 1503 to 1513, known for his use of military power to secure papal territory. He is also known for renovating St. Peter’s Basilica.

Papal bull execrabilis

Issued by Pope Pius II in response to sacrosancta. States that any council appeals that went over the head of the pope were heretical.

sacrosancta

Issued by the Council of Consatance, stated that the council received authority directly from God. Therefore, everyone - including the Pope - was subject to its claims.

Borgia family

A powerful and influential family in Renaissance Italy, known for their political intrigue and corruption. They produced Pope Alexander VI and were significant players in the politics of the papacy.

nepotism

The practice of favoritism granted to relatives or friends, often seen in political and religious contexts, particularly in the appointment of church officials.

Alexander VI

The Borgia pope who ruled from 1492 to 1503, known for his controversial actions and use of nepotism to advance the power of his family.

Basilica of St. Peter

A major basilica located in Vatican City, recognized as one of the holiest Catholic shrines and a prominent example of Renaissance architecture. Pope Julius II famously renovated it.

Matthias Corvinus

The King of Hungary from 1458 to 1490, known for his military prowess and patronage of the arts, he was also a significant figure in Central European politics during the Renaissance.

Mary of Burgundy and Maximilian I

This dynastic marriage united the Burgundian Netherlands with the Habsburg dynasty, significantly influencing European power dynamics.

Frederick III

Holy Roman Emperor from 1452 to 1493, known for his long reign and efforts to consolidate the Habsburg dynasty.

Cardinal Ximenes

A prominent Spanish cardinal and statesman, he was instrumental in helping Ferdinand and Isabella reform the Catholic church and restore their power. Reforms led to the establishment of the Spanish Inquisition.

Axial Rudder

A steering device that pivots around a vertical axis, commonly used in ships to improve maneuverability and control. Technological improvement that helped sustain the Age of Exploration

astrolabe

An ancient instrument used for solving problems relating to time and the position of the stars. It played a significant role in navigation and astronomy.

lateen sail

A triangular sail that is mounted at an angle to the mast, allowing for better maneuverability and the ability to sail against the wind. It was a key development during the Age of Exploration.

Ptolemy’s Map of the World

A representation of the known world as understood by the ancient Greeks, based on the geocentric model. It significantly influenced navigation and cartography during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

portolani

Charts made for maritime navigation, providing detailed coastal information and routes for sailors, crucial during the Age of Exploration.

The Three Gs (God, Glory, and Gold)

A phrase that summarizes the primary motivations behind the European exploration during the Age of Exploration, emphasizing the desire for religious conversion, national prestige, and economic gain.

Spanish Maritime Empire

The vast empire established by Spain that included permanent colonial settlements in the Americas, Africa, and Asia.

Portuguese Trade Post Empire

An imperial system established by Portugal characterized by a network of trading posts across Africa, Asia, and South America, primarily focused on trade and resource extraction.

Treaty of Tordesillas

An agreement between Spain and Portugal in 1494 that divided newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal.

conquistadors

Spanish explorers and soldiers who sought to conquer new territories in the Americas during the Age of Exploration, driven by the pursuit of wealth and glory.

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador known for his expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large parts of Mexico under Spanish rule. He was able to conquer the Aztecs due to a combination of military might and disease.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that conquered the Inca Empire in Peru and captured their leader, Atahualpa. He was able to conquer the Inca mostly due to the devastation of disease.

Prince Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince who played a significant role in the early days of the Portuguese Empire and is known for his support of maritime exploration and the development of new navigational techniques.

Bartolomeu Dias

Portuguese explorer who was the first to sail around the southern tip of Africa, reaching the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, paving the way for a sea route to Asia.

Vasco da Gama

Portuguese explorer who was the first to reach India by sea, establishing a direct maritime trade route between Europe and Asia in 1498.

Malacca

Important trading port city in Southeast Asia, crucial for trade routes between the East and West.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer credited with discovering the Americas in 1492 while searching for a westward route to Asia. His voyages opened the way for the widespread European exploration and colonization of the Americas.

smallpox

A highly contagious viral disease that devastated Indigenous populations in the New World.

encomienda system

A colonial labor system that gavw Spanish colonists the right to demand forced labor and tribute from local Indigenous people.

Moctezuma

The emperor of the Aztec Empire, known for his encounter with Hernán Cortés and for his role during the Spanish conquest of Mexico.

joint-stock companies

Business entities where multiple investors pool resources to fund trade and colonization efforts.

Dutch East India Company

A joint-stock company established in 1602 to conduct trade and colonization activities in Asia, particularly focused on the spice trade.

British East India Company

A joint-stock company founded in 1600, it played a crucial role in British trade in India and the East Indies, contributing to British colonial influence.

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

The forced transportation of enslaved Africans to the Americas, which became a central part of the Atlantic economy from the 16th to the 19th centuries.

raw materials

Natural resources extracted from the earth, such as timber, minerals, and agricultural products, that are used for production or trade. These came from the New World to Europe as part of exploration.

manufactured goods

Products that have been processed and transformed from raw materials, including items like textiles, machinery, and consumer products, often shipped from Europe to the colonies.

Saint-Domingue

A French colony on the western part of Hispaniola, known for its sugar plantations and as one of the wealthiest colonies in the Americas before the Haitian Revolution.

West Indies

A series of islands in the Caribbean. Historically significant for the sugar trade and colonization. Included territories owned by European powers.

Jesuits

A religious order of priests in the Catholic Church, known for their missionary work, education, and influence in various regions, particularly in the Americas and Asia. They were the missionaries sent to China to try and convert Chinese court officials, which they failed to do,

Middle Passage

The sea route used for transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas, characterized by horrific conditions and high mortality rates.

Triangular Trade

A historical trade system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas, involving the exchange of goods, enslaved people, and raw materials.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and disease between the Americas and the Old World following Columbus's voyages.

Mestizos

People of mixed European and Indigenous descent in Latin America.

Mulattos

People of mixed European and African descent, commonly found in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Missionaries

Individuals sent to promote Christianity and convert indigenous peoples, often establishing missions in the Americas.

Gerardus Mercator

Flemish cartographer known for creating the Mercator projection, which facilitates the navigation of the globe by preserving angles.

price revolution

A period of sustained inflation in Europe during the 16th century, primarily driven by an influx of precious metals and increased demand for goods.

inflation

The rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services rises, which makes it harder to purchase items.

Bank of Amsterdam

A financial institution established in 1609 that played a crucial role in the development of banking and finance in Europe, facilitating trade and currency exchange.

mercantilism

An economic theory that emphasizes the role of the state in managing the economy, particularly through regulations on trade, to maximize national wealth and power.

wages vs. prices

The relationship between the earnings of workers and the cost of goods and services, often affecting purchasing power.