China and East Asia

Sunzi (Sun Tzu)

Warring States Period (c. 475–221 BCE). Military general and author of "The Art of War." He theorized warfare through intelligence and subterfuge rather than brute force. His work highlights the intellectual flourishing that occurred during the military competition of the Warring States period.

Confucius (Kongzi)

Warring States Period (551–479 BCE). Philosophy central to Chinese governance emphasizing virtue and hierarchical relationships (ruler/subject, father/son). It focused on mutual obligations of obedience and care as the basis for social order rather than strict legal codes.

Qin Shi Huang (The First Emperor)

Ruled 221–210 BCE. The ruler who unified China, ending the Warring States Period. He implemented Legalism, standardized measures and writing, and is famous for the terracotta army and suppressing Confucianism.

Xuanzang

7th Century CE (Tang Dynasty). A Buddhist monk who traveled to India to retrieve original texts. His return led to the creation of state-funded study centers, illustrating China's historical openness to foreign ideas via the Silk Roads.

Kublai Khan

Ruled 1260–1294 (Founded Yuan Dynasty 1271). Mongol ruler who conquered the Song Dynasty. He adopted the "Mandate of Heaven" to legitimize foreign rule, serving as a prime example of "Sinicization" or the hybridization of conquerors.

Zheng He

Early 15th Century (Ming Dynasty). Admiral who led massive naval expeditions to Southeast Asia and Africa. His voyages showed Chinese technological power and the tribute system's reach

George Macartney

1793. British diplomat who failed to negotiate trade relations with the Qing court because he refused to perform the kowtow. This event symbolized the clash between European sovereign state systems and the Chinese tribute system.

The Warring States Period

475–221 BCE. A time of military competition between independent states that spurred economic growth (iron, coinage) and intellectual creativity, including the "Hundred Schools of Thought."

Treaty of Nerchinsk

1689. A peace treaty between the Qing and Russia. It showed the pragmatism of the "Overland System" by treating Russia as an equal to secure the border, using Latin and Manchu to hide this equality from the Chinese public.

The Opium Wars

First War (1839–1842)

Taiping Rebellion

1850–1864. A massive civil war led by a Christian convert claiming to be the brother of Jesus. It severely weakened the Qing dynasty and showed the disruptive impact of foreign ideas.

Middle Kingdom (Zhongguo)

The concept of China as the center of civilization, superior to "barbarians." This justified a hierarchical foreign policy where China was viewed as a civilizational zone rather than a standard nation-state.

Mandate of Heaven

A political theory where the ruler is granted the right to govern by heaven based on virtue. Unlike "Divine Right," it was conditional

Tribute System

Institutions organizing relations with sedentary neighbors (Korea, Vietnam). Rulers acknowledged Chinese superiority through gifts/envoys in exchange for legitimacy, security, and trading rights while maintaining domestic autonomy.

Overland System

Institutions managing relations with nomadic groups to the North/West. Because nomads were a military threat, China used pragmatism: marriage diplomacy, frontier towns, and "reverse tribute" (buying peace).

Kowtow (Ketou)

A ritual act of deep respect (kneeling and bowing to the ground) required of foreign envoys. Refusal to perform it (like Macartney) signified a rejection of the Chinese hierarchical world order.

Legalism (Fajia)

A political philosophy emphasizing strict laws, harsh punishments, and absolute ruler power. Used by the Qin state to unify China, it prioritized Realpolitik and ruthlessness over Confucian morality.

Sinicization

The process by which non-Chinese conquerors (like the Mongols or Manchus) adopted Chinese culture and political systems to rule effectively, often resulting in a hybrid identity.

Civilizational Zone

A region sharing cultural practices, a writing system, and political language (like East Asia) rather than being a single unified nation-state. This allowed for cultural unity despite political fragmentation.