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developmental psychology
the scientific study of how and why people change over the course of their life
nature vs nurture
how do our genetics and our life experiences interact to shape our development
continuity theory
developmental changes that are slow and steady, where each step builds directly on the previous ones
stage theory
development happens in specific, sudden shifts that clearly differentiate one phase from another.
stability and change
This area of study helps us understand how and why people remain the same in some ways but also evolve and adapt in others as they go through different life stages
Longitudinal Research
studying the same individuals over time, allowing for direct observation of how behaviors, traits, and abilities change and develop throughout life
Cross-Sectional Research
studying different groups of people of various ages at the same point in time
Psychosocial Development
theory that individuals progress through a series of stages, each characterized by a specific conflict that contributes to a major aspect of personality
Prenatal Development
the process of growth and development within the womb, starting from conception and continuing until birth
Teratogens
Agents that damage the process of prenatal development (drugs, alcohol, etc)
Reflexes
automatic, instinctual responses that newborns are born with, aiding in their survival
Rooting Reflex
automatic response in newborns where they turn their head toward a touch on the cheek, helping them locate and latch onto the mother's breast for feeding
Maturation
the biological growth process that leads to orderly changes in behavior, guided by genetics and largely unaffected by experience
Developmental Milestones
key skills or behaviors most children achieve by specific ages (walking, talking, and problem-solving)
Sensitive Period
a critical time in early development when the brain is especially receptive to learning specific skills
fine motor coordination
the ability to control small muscle movements, enabling tasks like writing, buttoning, etc
gross motor coordination
the ability to control large muscle movements, enabling tasks like walking, jumping, etc
Sex
the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex.
X chromosome
The sex chromosome found in both men and women
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome found only in males
Primary sex characteristic
The reproductive organs and structures directly involved in reproduction (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia)
Secondary sex characteristics
physical traits that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction (breast development, deepening voice)
Gender
the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person's biological sex
Sexual Orientation
A person's sexual and emotional attraction to another person
Gender Identity
an individual's internal sense of being male, female, a blend of both, or neither
Gender Roles
societal expectations and norms for behavior, attitudes, and activities typically associated with being male or female
Gender Typing
the process by which children learn and adopt behaviors, interests, and roles considered appropriate for their gender
Ecological Systems Theory
a child's development is influenced by multiple layers of environmental systems
(microsystem, mesosystem, etc)
Authoritarian Parenting
Restrictive parenting style that emphasizes high expectations and rigid rules
Permissive Parenting
style that is characterized by having few and inconsistent rules that are rarely enforced and a relaxed attitude
Authoritative Parenting Style
Parenting style that is child-centered, in that parents closely interact with their children, while maintaining high expectations for behavior and performance
Temperament
The innate traits that influence how children respond to their environment
Imprinting
A rapid and instinctive form of early learning where certain animals form strong attachments to the first moving object they see shortly after birth or hatching
Contact Comfort
The sense of security and emotional relief derived from physical touch
Separation Anxiety
A distress response experienced by infants or young children when separated from their primary caregiver
Attachment Styles
Patterns of behavior that describe how children form emotional bonds with caregivers, influencing relationships later in life
Secure Attachment
A pattern where children feel confident and trust that their caregiver will meet their needs
Avoidant (Insecure) Attachment
A pattern where children exhibit independence and avoid seeking comfort from their caregiver, often resulting from caregivers who are emotionally unavailable or unresponsive
Anxious Attachment
A pattern where children are overly clingy and anxious about separation from their caregiver, stemming from inconsistent caregiving
Disorganized Attachment
A pattern characterized by inconsistent or confused behaviors towards a caregiver, often resulting from trauma or abuse
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)
potentially traumatic events or conditions, (abuse, neglect) that occur before age 18 and can have long-term impacts on health and well-being
Adolescent Egocentrism
stage in teenage development marked by an increased self-focus, leading to beliefs that one's experiences are unique and that others are always observing them
Imaginary Audience
phenomenon in adolescence where individuals believe others are constantly watching and judging their behavior, making them highly self-conscious
Personal Fable
adolescent belief that one's experiences are unique and special, often leading to feelings of invulnerability and an underestimation of potential risks
Possible Selves
the various versions of who individuals might become in the future, including ideal selves they hope to achieve and feared selves they wish to avoid
Social Identity
an individual's sense of who they are based on their membership in social groups, like nationality, religion, or profession
Identity Diffusion
a state where individuals have not yet explored or committed to life choices regarding beliefs, goals, or values, often leading to uncertainty about their sense of self
Identity Foreclosure
stage where individuals commit to goals, beliefs, or values without exploring alternatives, often adopting the expectations of parents or society
Identity Moratorium
a stage in which individuals actively explore different life paths, beliefs, and values but have not yet made a final commitment, often leading to a period of uncertainty and experimentation
Identity Achievement
the stage where individuals have explored various life paths and made firm decisions about their beliefs, values, and goals, resulting in a clear and stable sense of self
Jean Piaget
He studied children's developing cognition-all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Schemas
Cognitive concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Assimilation
Interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing (understanding) schemas
Accommodation
Adapting/Altering our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
Sensorimotor Stage
(birth to age 2) Infants use their senses and motor abilities to learn about the world around them (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping)
Preoperational Stage
(ages 2 to 7), children develop language, symbolic thinking, and imagination but struggle with logical reasoning and understanding others' perspectives
Object Permanence
A child's ability to understand that objects still exist after they are no longer in sight
Pretend Play
involves children acting out scenarios, roles, or situations using their imagination
Parallel Play
stage in early childhood where children play alongside each other without directly interacting
Animism
children attribute lifelike qualities, like feelings and intentions, to inanimate objects
Egocentrism
children struggle to see things from another person's point of view, believing others share their perspective
Theory of Mind
ability to understand others' mental states (thoughts, feelings, and perspectives) typically developing around age 4 to 5
Concrete Operational Stage
Piaget's third stage of cognitive development (ages 7 to 11), children develop logical thinking about concrete events/objects and understand concepts like conservation and reversibility
Conservation
The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Reversibility
the ability to mentally reverse an action or operation, understanding that objects can be returned to their original state
Formal Operational Stage
The stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
Lev Vygotsky
developmental psychologist known for his theory that social interaction plays a critical role in cognitive development
Zone of Proximal Development
the range between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance
Scaffolding
teaching method where a knowledgeable person provides tailored support to help a learner achieve new skills, gradually reducing assistance as the learner becomes more proficient
Fluid Intelligence
abilities requiring speed or rapid learning generally diminishes with age
Crystallized Intelligence
knowledge/skills such as vocabulary improving over time
Dementia
decline in cognitive functioning that interferes with daily life
Language
a system of communication using symbols, sounds, and grammar to convey thoughts, feelings, and meaning
Critical Period
a specific time frame in early childhood when the brain is most receptive to learning language
Phonemes
the smallest distinct units of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a word
Morphemes
the smallest units of meaning in a language, such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words
Semantics
the study of meaning in language, focusing on how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning
Grammar
the set of rules that govern how words are combined to form sentences, enabling clear and meaningful communication in a language
Syntax
the set of rules that determines the arrangement of words and phrases to form sentences in a language, affecting sentence structure and meaning
Cooing
early stage of language development where infants produce repetitive, soft vowel sounds like "oo" and "ah," usually starting around two months of age
Babbling Stage
phase in language development, usually starting around 4-6 months, where infants produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations like "ba-ba" and "da-da"
One-Word Stage
phase in language development, typically around age one, where children use single words to represent whole sentences or ideas
Two-Word Stage
phase in language development, around age two, where children start combining two words to form simple sentences
Overgeneralization
common error in language development where children apply grammatical rules too broadly, resulting in mistakes
Nonverbal Manual Gestures
manual gestures are hand or arm movements used to communicate without speaking, such as pointing, waving, or making signs, and often convey emotions, intentions, or directions
social clock
the timing of events such as marriage, career, retirement, etc
emerging adulthood
developmental phase that spans between adolescences and adulthood
trust vs mistrust
Infants must learn that adults can be trusted or not
(can I trust the people around me)
autonomy vs shame/doubt
as toddlers begin to explore the world , they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results
(Can I do things myself or am I reliant on the help of others)
initiative vs guilt
At the preschool stage children are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play
(Am I good or bad)
industry vs inferiority
Children begin to compare themselves to their peers, develop a sense of pride and accomplishment or feeling of inferiority/inadequacy
(How can I be good)
identity vs role confusion
An adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self
(Who am I)
intimacy vs isolation
Develop and maintain successful relationships with others
(Will I be loved or will I be alone)
generativity vs stagnation
Middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation/society or little connection to others
(How can I contribute to the world)
ego integrity vs despair
People in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure
(Did I live a meaningful life)
