PDHPE Notes - Factors Affecting Performance (Core 2)

Factors Affecting Performance

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

The body’s only immediately usable energy molecule; made of adenosine and three phosphates held by high-energy bonds.

Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)

ATP after losing one phosphate; must be re-synthesised back to ATP to supply energy.

• Each energy system finds a way to attach one phosphate molecule back to ADP to make ATP again.

Alactacid (ATP/PC) System

Anaerobic energy pathway that uses PC for rapid ATP resynthesis; dominant for 8-12 s high-intensity efforts.

• Creatine Phosphate: energy-rich compound stored in muscle that donates phosphate to ADP during the ATP/PC system - body has approx 6.

• Very fast rate of ATP production.

• By-product of heat.

• PC is restored in 2 minutes, with 50% replenishing in the first 30 seconds of recovery.

Lactic Acid System

Anaerobic glycolysis that breaks down glucose to produce ATP and lactate; fuels 30 s–3 min high-intensity work.

• Fast rate of production.

• Glycogen is derived from carbohydrates.

• Build of pyruvic acid - without oxygen the body converts pyruvate and hydrogen to lactate.

• Recovery involves the removal of pyruvic acid which requires oxygen - takes 30-60 minutes.

Aerobic System

Oxygen-dependent pathway using glycogen, fats, and protein via glycolysis, Krebs cycle and ETC; supplies long-duration ATP.

• Medium rate of production that is slower than the anaerobic systems but more efficient.

• May not have a limit as long as fuel sources can be found.

• Athletes will switch from glycogen to fat - known as ‘hitting the wall.’

• By products of water, carbon dioxide, and pyruvic acid.

• Recovery involves a restoration of fuel to pre-exercise levels and removal of waste productions - 12 to 48 hours.

Glycolysis

Breakdown of glucose to pyruvate for ATP production; anaerobic or aerobic.

Aerobic Training Methods

Targets the aerobic energy system and the cardiorespiratory system, increasing delivery of oxygen to the muscles, improving removal of waste products, and enhancing the muscles’ ability to use the aerobic energy system.

• Continuous - same activity, same intensity, set duration

• Fartlek - single activity with random, varying intensities

• Aerobic Interval - alternates between two set intensities

• Circuit - various activities performed for a set time

Anaerobic Training Methods

Develops the two anaerobic energy systems as well as power, strength, and speed - increases LIP, speeds up glycolysis.

• Anaerobic Interval - single activity with specified changes in intensity at specific times or lengths within the session.

Flexibility Training Methods

Aims to increase a joint’s range of motion, specifically passive range of motion.

• Static - muscle is stretched and held for a given time

• Ballistic - involves a bounce, swing, push or pull

• PNF - static stretch followed by a isometric contraction, then a further lengthening of the muscle

• Dynamic - moving through the range of motion to produce temporal stretches of selected muscles

Strength Training Methods

Any training that improves an athlete’s strength by causing muscular hypertrophy.

• Free/Fixed Weights - lifting a certain weight against gravity, e.g., dumbbells, barbells, plates.

• Elastic - using various forms of elastic to provide resistance to develop strength.

• Hydraulic - machines which use water or air compression to provide equal resistance throughout the movement

Principles of Training

• Progressive Overload

• Specificity

• Reversibility

• Variety

• Training Thresholds

• Warm Up and Cool Down

Progressive Overload

Gradually increasing training stress to stimulate continued physiological adaptation.

• As the body becomes familiar with a particular level of training stress, it adapts to it and further training at this level fails to sufficiently stress the system.

• Coach must make moderate changes to the time, distance, intensity, weight and repetitions of training.

Specificity

Training principle stating adaptations are specific to muscles, movements and energy systems stressed.

• Greatest gains are made when the activity resembles the movements and situations in the sport.

• Body adapts to stresses in a very specific way.

Reversibility

Loss of training adaptations when exercise stops or is greatly reduced - detraining occurs meaning gains are lost over time.

• Gains are typically kept for 2 weeks before reversibility ocurs.

• Adaptations are generally lost at a similar rate to which they were gained.

Variety

Using multiple training types and methods to maintain motivation and stimulate further gains.

• Allows athletes to activate the same muscle groups in different ways to increase performance capacity and maintain focus.

• Increases motivation, interest, and performance enhancements.

Training Threshold

Minimum exercise intensity required to stress the body enough to cause physiological adaptation.

• Aerobic Zone: training zone between the aerobic and anaerobic threshold - steady-state (60-80% MHR).

• Anaerobic Threshold: point at which lactic acid accumulates in the muscles, the Lactate Inflection Point (LIP) (80-85%).

Warm Up

Low-to-moderate general aerobic activity plus dynamic stretching to prepare the body and mind for exercise.

• Reduces risk of injury and soreness by increasing joint mobility, muscle stretch and body temperature.

• 10 minutes moving from low to high intensity, and from general movements to sport specific movements.

Cool Down

Low-intensity activity and stretching post-exercise that aids recovery and lactate removal.

• Assists with recovery and prevention of injury by minimising muscle stiffness and soreness.

• Prevents fluid pooling in the used muscles.

• Moves from medium to low intensity, and from sport specific to general movements.

Physiological Adaptations in Response to Training (REMOSH)

• resting heart rate

• stroke volume/cardiac output

• oxygen uptake and lung capacity

• haemoglobin level

• muscle hypertrophy

• effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres

Resting Heart Rate

Beats per minute at rest; DECLINES with endurance training.

• A lower resting heart rate is due to increased stroke volume and haemoglobin levels, leading to improved cardiovascular efficiency.

• Myocardium and Interventricular Septum grow the most in training - become stronger and can pump more blood in less beats.

Stroke Volume

Blood ejected from the left ventricle per contraction (mL/beat); INCREASES with aerobic training.

• Strength on contraction increases, and left ventricle fils more completely during diastole.

• Higher at maximal exercise following an endurance training program.

• Trained athletes can be as low as 30-40bpm.

• Left ventricle becomes thicker - greater amount of filling and propelling of blood leads to this increase.

Cardiac Output

Stroke volume × heart rate; total blood pumped out of the left ventricle per minute.

• INCREASES as a direct result of an increased stroke volume.

• For trained athletes, CO is 20-25 litres per minute.

• Allows for faster and more efficient transportation of blood, including oxygen.

Oxygen Uptake (VO₂ Max)

The body’s ability to absorb oxygen through the lungs and into the blood, transport this oxygen sufficiently to the muscle and then transport the oxygen out of the blood and into the muscle cell where it can be used for energy production.

• Improvements can be seen from about 8 weeks.

• INCREASES in response to training.

• Results from an increase in haemoglobin and myoglobin levels - better absorption and transportation of oxygen.

Lung Capacity

Lung capacity only changes a little - increases tidal volume and decreases residual volume.

Haemoglobin

Iron-containing protein molecule contained in red blood cells that transports oxygen.

• INCREASES as a result of aerobic training.

• Delays the need to rely on the anaerobic system, avoiding fatigue caused by the build-up of acid in the muscle.

• Can be increased by training at high altitudes.

Fast Twitch Muscle Fibres

Type II fibres for power; contract quickly, fatigue rapidly, favour anaerobic metabolism.

Muscle Hypertrophy

A term that refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of the muscle cross-sectional area.

• Damaged cells are replaced through the cellular process of fusing muscle fibres together to form new muscle protein strands.

• Leads to increased muscular strength and endurance.

• INCREASES as a result of resistance training - relies upon progressive overload, specificity and variety.

Slow Twitch Muscle Fibres

Type I fibres for endurance; contract slowly, resist fatigue, rely on aerobic metabolism.

• Red in colour because of the extra blood supply they have in order to assist the aerobic energy system.

• Surrounded by capillaries.

Fast Twitch Muscle Fibres

Type 2 fibres used for strength, power, and movements of high intensity and short duration.

• Contract quickly but fatigue rapidly.

• White fibres.

Motivation

The driving force behind the athlete in relation to their actions - internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal.

• Motivated athletes are more likely to succeed than an unmotivated athlete.

• Can be as simple as recognising individual effort, supporting belief in one’s ability, instilling a good work ethics, and providing positive reinforcement.

Positive Motivation

Behaviour encouraged by rewards or pleasant outcomes.

• Can be intrinsic - good feeling that comes with achieving a goal.

• Can be extrinsic - receiving a $500 bonus.

• More effective and sustainable than negative motivation.

Negative Motivation

Behaviour driven by fear of punishment or unpleasant outcomes.

• Can be intrinsic - feeling of disappointment, fear.

• Can be extrinsic - loss of prize money, missing team selection.

• Often results in more conservative performances, and destruction of confidence.

Intrinsic Motivation

Drive originating within the athlete, e.g., satisfaction from mastery.

• Self-generated, and self-enforcing.

• Best motivation for producing long-term results.

• Important for sports where motivation needs to be sustained for long periods.

• High levels of mastery or task orientation.

Extrinsic Motivation

Drive created by external rewards such as money, trophies or praise.

• Tends to have an outcome or ego orientation.

• Extrinsic motivation can become unsuccessful if it challenges the values of the individual or is seen as not useful or fulfilling.

• Effort and the desire for achievement are related to the expectation of an outside reward or fear of punishment.

Anxiety

Psychological process characterised by fear of apprehension in anticipation of confronting a situation perceived to be potentially threatening.

• Brings a sense of unease - increases heart rate and blood pressure.

• 'Flight or fight response’ - releases adrenaline.

Trait Anxiety

General tendency to perceive situations as threatening - characteristic of a person.

• Encouragement and support can positively affect an athlete’s level of trait anxiety.

State Anxiety

Temporary emotional state arising in specific situations - characterised by a state of heightened emotions in response to fear or danger.

• May arise when an athlete is in high-pressure situations and is called upon to perform, e.g., penalty shot.

Sources of Stress

Associated with feelings of pressure and any unpleasant emotion or feeling - can be beneficial and healthy in small amounts as it can help improve performance.

• increased blood supply to skeletal muscles

• more oxygen to the lungs

• increase glucose productions to provide extra fuel

• increased sweat production to cool the body

• tightened muscles to prepare the body for action

Optimum Arousal

Ideal physiological activation level for maximal performance - the point at which the athlete is exposed to arousal which is beneficial to performance.

• The more difficult the skill, the lower the levels of arousal needed.

Inverted U Hypothesis

Model showing performance improves with arousal up to a point then declines - B is the optimal arousal zone.

• Under Arousal: characterised by lethargy, lack of motivation, distraction, disinterest.

• Over Arousal: characterised by an inability to focus, becoming excessively tense.

Psychological Strategies

• Concentration/Attention Skills

• Mental Rehearsal/Visualisation

• Relaxation Techniques

• Goal-Setting

Concentration (Attention Skills)

Refers to an athlete focusing on queues and elements that are specific to performance, rather than the outcome of the skill.

• The more the athlete focuses on completing the skill with correct technique, the better their focus is, and thus the better their skill execution.

• Intense Focus, Sustained Attention, Focus and Attention

Mental Rehearsal/Visualisation

The athlete pictures the movement or skill in their mind.

• The athlete takes their own perspective and imagines completing the skill perfectly, while ensuring they visualise the complete scenario (sounds, colours, movements, defenders, etc).

• Can be a useful as a form of practice, especially when physical practice is not possible – injured or sick athletes will rehearse using visualisation techniques to maintain current levels of skill execution.

• Optimises arousal, improves concentration, enhances motivation and decreases anxiety by creating familiar environments, prepares the athlete for competition and skill execution

Relaxation Techniques

Used to assist in the control of physical responses to stress and anxiety.

• centred breathing - reduces respiratory and heart rate

• progressive muscular relaxation - contracting and relaxing muscles from one end of their body to the other

• listening to music - can increase or lower arousal

• mental relaxation - reducing respiratory rate and emptying mind of distractions

• cool towel - decrease body temperature and sweating

Goal Setting

Establishing SMART targets to guide training and assess progress - goals are targets that athlete’s direct their effort towards.

• Provide athletes with a reason to persevere with training.

• Short-Term and Long-Term

• Behaviour and Performance

Stages of Skill Acquisition

• cognitive

• associative

• autonomous

Cognitive Stage

Initial phase focused on understanding what to do - mental processing, thinking, and understanding are the predominant factors.

• KEY FOCUS: knowing and understanding the skill, developing a clear mental picture, establishing subroutines.

• LOOKS: awkward and uncomfortable, out of synch, lots of large mistakes, coach needs to point out errors.

Associative Stage

Practice phase where movements become smoother and errors fewer - athlete is associating themselves with the skill in order to become fluent.

• KEY FOCUS: practice and refinement.

• LOOKS: skill can be sequenced together and is becoming fluent, still making mistakes but with increasing awareness of what is required to fix these, high levels of practice, skill may be well executed, but not to the speed or distance required.

Autonomous Stage

Skill executed automatically with minimal conscious thought - movement comes naturally.

• KEY FOCUS: how the athlete can expertly apply the skill in different contexts and environments.

• LOOKS: practicing the skill under various conditions, deep analysis on part of a skill is typically applied rather than the whole skill, occasional errors which can be self-identified.

Characteristics of the Learner

• personality

• heredity

• confidence

• prior experience

• ability

Confidence

Belief in one’s ability to succeed at tasks.

• Leads to greater resilience and determination.

• Comes out of natural personality, previous experience, and success.

• Overconfidence can lead to overarousal and decrease performance.

Ability

Ease with which a person learns and performs skills; often called natural talent.

• Often a result of personality and heredity.

• Characterised by fluid movements and accurate skill execution.

Heredity

Genetically inherited traits influencing performance potential.

• Gender - hormone levels, testosterone

• Body Type/Somatotype - ectomorph, mesomorph, endomorph

• Muscle Fibre Composition - fast and slow twitch fibres

• Race - particular races can have genes suited to certain sports

• Predisposition to Pick Skills Up Quickly

• Social Heredity - exposure to interest and environmental influences

Prior Experience

Transfer of previously learned skills to new tasks, aiding acquisition.

• Can be positive or negative + lateral or vertical.

Personality

An individual’s typical way of behaving, thinking and feeling - influences work efforts and mentality.

• positivity curiosity, confidence, reliability, risk-taking

• negativity, impatience, emotional, poor mindset, sluggish

The Learning Environment

• nature of the skill - open, closed, gross, fine, discrete, serial, continuous, self-paced, externally paced

• practice method - massed, distributed, whole, part

• feedback - internal, external, concurrent, delayed, knowledge of results, knowledge of performance

Open Skill

Performed in unpredictable, changing environment (e.g., surfing).

• Harder to learn.

• Need to be adapted in response to opponents, environment, and team.

• Often outdoors and externally paced.

Closed Skill

Performed in stable, predictable environments (e.g., gymnastics routine).

• Easier to learn - suited to beginners.

• Usually indoors, and self-paced under direct control of the athlete.

Gross Motor Skill

Large-muscle movement such as running or jumping.

• Can be easier to learn as there is greater room for error.

Fine Motor Skill

Small-muscle movement requiring precision, e.g., darts throw.

• Can be harder as there is less room for error.

Discrete Skill

Has clear beginning and end, e.g., baseball pitch.

• Brief movement, simple skills, generally short duration.

Serial Skill

Sequence of discrete skills forming a larger action, e.g., lay-up.

• More complicated than discrete skils.

Continuous Skill

No definitive start/finish, repetitive, e.g., swimming.

• Skill is ongoing and flowing.

Externally Paced Skill

Timing controlled by external factors such as environment or opponent, e.g., batting in cricket.

• Music, opponents, teammates.

Self-Paced Skill

Performer controls timing and pace, e.g., tennis serve.

Performance Elements - Decision-Making, Strategic and Tactical Development

Strategy: the way a coach wants the team to play - overall method to achieve the goal.

Tactics: often more specific to what a team does for the opposition - gaining and advantage

Decision-Making: refers to the various decisions made by an athlete during a performance - when and how of the skill.

Practice Methods

• massed

• distributed

• whole

• part

Massed Practice

Long practice sessions with short rest; suits motivated learners.

• Suitable for athletes affected by time and travel barriers - unable to train every day.

• Suitable for skills that have a distinctive beginning and end.

Distributed Practice

Shorter practice bouts separated by longer rest; good for beginners.

• Cognitive stage, suited to skills that are physically strenuous, boring and more difficult.

Whole Practice

Skill rehearsed in its entirety - often used for discrete and continuous skills.

Part Practice

Skill broken into components practiced separately then combined - often used for serial skills that have smaller skills.

Feedback

• internal

• external

• concurrent

• delayed

• knowledge of results

• knowledge of performance

Internal Feedback

Information sensed by performer’s kinesthetic awareness during/after movement.

• Comes from within the performer - athlete knows if a skill ‘felt’ right.

• Better judgement in the autonomous level.

External Feedback

Information from outside sources, e.g., coach, video or scoreboard.

• Result or score, coach/specialist providing tips, spectator/parent/peer response, video analysis of previous performance.

Concurrent Feedback

Information received DURING performance either internally or externally.

• E.g., adjusting self to maintain a position or coach pausing a game midway through.

Delayed Feedback

Information provided AFTER performance completion.

• E.g., waiting to see if a goal is successful, video analysis.

Knowledge of Results

External feedback about outcome (score, time).

• OBJECTIVE - e.g., shooting percentage.

Knowledge of Performance

Feedback on quality or technique of movement.

• SUBJECTIVE - e.g., dropping shoulder too early in a tennis serve.

Assessment of Skill and Performance

• characteristics of skilled performers - kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency, technique

• objective and subjective performance measures

• validity and reliability of tests

• personal versus prescribed judging criteria

Characteristics of Skilled Performers (TACK)

• technique

• anticipation

• consistency

• kinaesthetic sense

Technique

Biomechanically efficient method of executing a skill.

• Safe, efficient, effective.

• Important when trying to develop strategy and tactics.

• Can decrease risk of injury.

Anticipation

Ability to predict opponent’s actions and respond early.

• Athletes who read and predict the movements of an opponent will be able to respond accordingly in the required time to execute skills.

• Comes by learning to read body positioning and an opponent’s style.

Consistency

Capacity to reproduce high-quality performance repeatedly.

• Autonomous athletes are consistent even when fatigued.

Kinaesthetic Sense

Relies on body and spatial awareness to adjust own body position (in space) and movements (own technique) to improve performance.

• Usually as a result of internal feedback.

Objective Measure

Performance assessment free from personal bias of a judge or observor, e.g., time, distance.

• No room for human errors - very RELIABLE.

Subjective Measure

Assessment based on opinion or judgement, e.g., gymnastics scoring.

• Scoring systems, criteria systems and rating scales are often used to reduce bias.

• May not be RELIABLE and requires extensive knowledge and skill to be VALID.

Reliability (of Tests)

Extent to which the results can be reproduced when the test is repeated under the same conditions (consistency).

• Can be increased by using same location, instructions, procedures, scoring system, and number of attempts.

• Reliability DOES NOT equal Validity.

Validity (of Tests)

Degree to which a test measures what it claims - do the results measure what they are supposed to.

• Validity generally EQUALS Reliability.

Personal Judging Criteria

Self-set standards or expectations used to evaluate performance - based on an individual’s ideas and expectations as to how performance should be measured.

• Based on feelings and often biased.

• Can be unreliable at times.

Prescribed Judging Criteria

Standardised external criteria established by governing bodies for scoring.

• Marketing criterias, checklists, or rating systems can be used to objectify subjective performance as much as possible.

• More reliable and valid but still subjective.

Pre-Performance Nutrition

Essential for an athlete to be well hydrated and have ample glycogen stores for energy production.

• Most important feature is maximising high levels of stored glucose.

• Ensures muscles can repair and recover.

Hydration: 2-3L of water prior to day of performance, 500mL in the final few hours, 250mL 30 minutes before performance.

Pre-Performance Meal: usually 3-4 hours prior to performance, light meals familiar ro the athlete, aim is to deal with hunger, top up glycogen stores, and hydrate.

Carbohydrate Loading

Aims to maximise stored glycogen in the muscles and liver for high intensity submaximal endurance activity that lasts for at least 9- minutes.

• Aim is to double glycogen stores.

• Must rest 24-36 hours prior to the event.

• 7-12g of carbs per kg of body weight in days leading up to performance.

• Only beneficial for large endurance events.

During-Performance Nutrition

Fluid and carbohydrate intake to maintain hydration and blood glucose.

• Fluid Replacement: frequent sips, 200-300mL every 15 minutes.

• Sports Drinks/Gels: can be beneficial for activities lasting more than 30-60 minutes, replenishes salts, sugars and electrolytes, can provide quick and minimal amounts of glycogen.

Post-Performance Nutrition

Replenishing carbohydrates, rehydrating, and rebuilding muscle tissue.

• Hydration: 200-300mL every 15 mins of exercise, should be 500mL of water for every half kilo of body weight lost, electrolytes should be considered.

• Glycogen Stores: high GI foods for immediate replacement of glycogen stores and more complex carbs within 1-2 hours of performance.

• Protein Replacement: should be consumed within 1-2 hours of activity completion to assist in the repair and growth of muscles.

Supplementation

Adding an extra amount to or an extra element to our diet.

• vitamins/minerals

• protein

• caffeine

• creatine

Vitamin Supplementation

Inorganic substances that allow normal bodily functions - mainly gained through variety and balance in a well-planned diet of fruits, vegetables, and meat products.

• Can act as a catalyst to assist in energy metabolism.

• Common for people to be deficient and require a capsule/drink as a booster.

• Excess is not stored in the body, so supplementation is only necessary for athletes who have deficiencies in their diet.

Mineral Supplementation

Adding elements such as iron or calcium when diet lacks them.

• Calcium - bones and teeth, blood clotting, muscle contraction

• Iron - part of the protein haemoglobin

• Magnesium - bone mineralisation, protein building, muscular contraction, nerve impulse transmission

• Potassium - maintain fluid and electrolyte balance, muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission

• Sodium - maintains fluid and electrolyte balance, support muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission

Protein Supplementation

Extra dietary amino acids to support muscle repair and hypertrophy - available in powder, fluid, or solid formations.

• Protein fuses the minor tears in the muscles back together, making them larger.

• Elite athletes require 1.2-1.8/kg of bodyweight per day.

• Insufficient protein can slow recovery, lead to loss of muscle mass, and reduced immunity.

• Shakes are the most common form of supplementation but can be expensive.

Caffeine

A stimulant that enhances reflexes and coordination – speeds up the central nervous system and blocks adenosine to the brain, improving perception of fatigue.

• Aids in hitting optimal arousal levels, increasing alertness and heart rate. Too much can have a negative impact, and benefits are short-lived and inconclusive.

• Was on the WADA banned list until 2004 but is now on the watchlist.

• Acts as a carbohydrate blocker meaning the body accesses fat first, making carbs accessible later - delays fatigue in long events.

• Also acts as a diuretic - athlete may need to consume a greater volume of fluids.

Creatine

A natural, organic acid which assists in the replenishing of ATP stores in the muscles through the ATP/PC energy system.

• Aids fast twitch fibre use – beneficial to strength and power activities of short duration such as weightlifting and sprinting.

• Increased PC stores can increase the lactic threshold and decrease recovery time.

• The body is unable to store excess creatine, so supplementation has little effect on athletes who already consume high amounts of protein.

• Can lead to weight gain and a ‘puffy’ look as it increases fluid retention in the body.

• Short-term side effects include stomach pain, diarrhoea, nausea, hypertension, and muscular cramps