RM Final

Nonexperimental Research

Research in which variables are observed rather than manipulated; cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data (ratings, scales, counts) that allow statistical analysis.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive, non-numerical data analyzed for themes and patterns.

Observational Research

Systematic observation of behavior without interference.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural environment without interaction.

Participant Observation

Researcher interacts with participants while observing behavior.

Contrived Observation

A structured situation is created to elicit specific behaviors.

Content Analysis / Archival Research

Studying existing records to identify behavioral patterns.

Frequency Method

Counting how often a behavior occurs.

Duration Method

Recording how long a behavior lasts.

Interval Method

Dividing time into intervals and recording whether behavior occurs.

Time Sampling

Observe during one interval and record during the next.

Event Sampling

Observe and record specific behaviors as they occur.

Individual Sampling

Observe one individual at a time.

Inter-rater Reliability

Degree of agreement between observers; often measured using Cohen’s kappa.

Case Study

In-depth examination of a single individual or small group.

Literature Review

Qualitative summary of existing research.

Meta-analysis

Quantitative analysis combining results from multiple studies using effect sizes.

Mixed Design (Split-Plot Design)

Combines between-subjects and within-subjects factors.

Nested Design

Levels of one factor exist only within levels of another factor.

Covariate

Continuous correlational variable included to reduce error variance and increase sensitivity.

Quasi-Independent Variable

A measured variable that resembles an IV but is not manipulated (e.g., gender).

Time Series Design

Multiple observations before and after a treatment.

Interrupted Time Series Design

Examines the effect of a naturally occurring event.

Equivalent Time Samples Design

Treatment is introduced and withdrawn repeatedly.

Nonequivalent Control Group Design

Includes a comparison group without random assignment.

Pretest–Posttest Design

Measures participants before and after treatment.

Pretest Sensitization

Pretest influences performance on the posttest.

Cross-Sectional Design

Compares different age groups at one point in time.

Longitudinal Design

Follows the same participants over time.

Subject Mortality

Loss of participants over time.

Cohort (Generation) Effect

Differences caused by generational experiences rather than age.

Factorial Design

Experimental design with two or more independent variables.

Factor

An independent variable in a factorial design.

Levels

Different values of a factor.

2 × 2 Factorial Design

Two factors, each with two levels.

Main Effect

Effect of one IV averaged across levels of another IV.

Interaction Effect

When the effect of one IV depends on the level of another IV.

Between-Subjects Design

Each participant is assigned to only one condition.

Independent Measures Design

Another name for between-subjects design.

Between-Subjects (Advantages)

No practice, fatigue, or carryover effects.

Between-Subjects (Disadvantages)

Individual differences, more participants needed, assignment bias.

Between-Treatments Variance

Differences caused by the independent variable (maximize).

Within-Treatments Variance

Variability due to individual differences or error (minimize).

Holding Variables Constant

Limiting participant characteristics to control variables.

Restricting Range

Using participants within a limited score range.

Differential Attrition

Unequal loss of participants across groups.

Diffusion

Communication between experimental and control groups.

Compensatory Rivalry (John Henry Effect)

Control group works harder to compete.

Resentful Demoralization

Control group loses motivation.

Within-Subjects Design (Repeated Measures)

Same participants complete all conditions.

Within-Subjects (Advantages)

Eliminates individual differences; fewer participants; participants serve as own control.

History

Events occurring between conditions that affect results.

Maturation

Natural changes in participants over time.

Instrumentation

Changes in measurement tools or observers.

Regression Toward the Mean

Extreme scores move closer to the average on retesting.

Order Effects

Effects caused by the sequence of conditions.

Practice Effect

Improved performance due to repetition.

Fatigue Effect

Decline in performance due to tiredness.

Carryover Effect

One condition influences performance in another condition.

Counterbalancing

Varying the order of conditions across participants.

Single-Subject Design

A within-subjects design focused on one individual.