Algeria - Independence Movements - IB History (Paper 2)

French invasion of Algeria

1830-1871

Effect of French invasion of Algeria

Why did France colonise Algeria?

originally started as a military occupation, proximal to France. Provided France with an economic opportunity, international prestige.

What methods did France use to rule Algeria?

1830-1870, use of violent force (military occupation of Algeria by French - tried to exert physical control over coastal cities --> gateways into the cities)

Divide and rule - due to the Arab and Berber ethnic groups. Attempted to create divisions between them to make it easier to rule. --> created different financial, educational and social opportunities in order to heighten this division.

Influx of settler population (15% of the population by 1962)

Effect of French invasion

French invasion gave root the dispute as it established the hostile relations between the two/three ethnic groups.

Established the divisions of the sides of the conflicts. The political, social and economic discrimination that the Algerians received from the French heightened these divisions --> nationalism.

How many european settlers in Algeria by 1962?

1.6 million (15.2%)

How many indigenous Algerians by 1962?

8.9 million (84.8%)

Effect of the large european settler population

How did colonialism affect the coastal population of Algeria

Coastal people (urban centres) had better lives--> able to progress a little more as they had greater (but still limited) access to schools, health centres, jobs etc.

How did colonialism affect the rural population of Algeria?

Arab population - tremendous diversity in the ways that they experienced the French regime.

However, the rural population had limited access to schools, jobs and modern infrastructure. Unable to progress at the rate of the urban populations --> stuck in the past --> lower quality of life = more discontent

Arab population:

Settler population

Role of race in the French treatment of Algerians?

The concept of discrimination and racism was clearly prominent in Algeria.

Race played a role as the French tried to concretely establish differences between the Algerians and the settler populations.

However, the differences inscribed in different ways than the usual apartheid. Instead, discrimination was embodied in the social divisions that the French enforced. For example, they reinforced the differences between Muslims and Arabs, those who spoke French or Arabic etc.

Thus, the french were able to create many divisions between the people within explicitly stating that they were less than them --> allowed them to rule more easily.

Role of race not as important

Race not as important as although all Algerians were discriminated against, legislation enforced that only Muslims were subjugated to 'subject' or second class status in their own country.

Laws dehumanised the Muslims and did not give them any rights in their own country --> saw them as 'subjects'

Algerians were granted full Algerian citizenship if they converted to Roman Catholicism. However, by ___ onyl 2,500 had converted out of the 4.1 million Algerian Muslim population.

How many Muslims converted to Roman Catholicism?

By _____, only 2,500 had converted to Roman Catholicism out of 4.1 million Algerian Muslims

Many others had moved and fled to France to escape the inequalities.

How many Algerians were un/under employed?

Unemployed = 1 million

Underemployed = 2 million (worked as farmers on settler farms)

How many Algerians were illiterate?

75% of Algerians were illiterate in Arabic as they were forced to speak French

Examples of social apartheid?

Beaches, areas to play were segregated and reserved for Europeans

Income differentiations?

French settler was paid 2.5x more than a Muslim for the same job

How did inequalities manifest?

French policy belittled Algerian culture (so the Algerians had to

Economic inequalities mainly:

Jobs - 1 million unemployed, 2 million underemployed

Housing -

Land - taken from the Algerians and given to the settler populations. Unable to own or access their own native lands --> given infertile land --> led to hunger, poverty and malnutrition (to escape destitution, tens of thousands of Algerians migrated to France)

Income differentiations - French settler was paid 2.5x more than a Muslim for the same job

Role of religion

HIGHLY IMPORTANT

French law decreed that Muslims were not Algerian citizens. If Algerians converted to Roman Catholicism and denounced Islam then they were given full status and rights of an Algerian citizen.

Justification for the French mistreatment of Algerians?

Policy of assimilation (administration and culture)

Whites justified it as a civilising mission (assimilation). They believed they were the superior race as they were white. they saw the Muslims as "primitive and medieval".

Justification was that the Berbers were more analogous to the french (closer phenotypic traits to the europeans). Therefore, they were of higher class/status than the Arabs.

When was the North Star of Africa (ENA) founded?

1926

When was the Algerian People's Party (PPA) formed?

1937

Impact of the popular front reforms?

Little to no impact.

in 1936.

Failure of the popular front reforms would have only very modestly extended the Muslims franchise.

Shows how political ideology/peaceful methods of attempting to secure independence were futile and ineffective --> had to change their means (violent!)

When was the Setif Massacre?

8th May 1945 (VE Day)

What did the Brazzaville Conference do?

Charles de Gaulle called for a new government and a new constitution but nothing happened.= no impact !!!

Explained that colonialism and racism was bad - with the exception of French colonialism.

Led to the Setif Riots --> chants for Algerian independence/change as nothing was happening (de Gaulle initially offered an olive branch of citizenship to those in the upper class of the Muslim population and to soldiers, but not enough)!!!

Why was the French response to the events at Setif so violent?

Massive scale as de Gaulle was pissy from being snubbed at the Yalta conference --> wanted to show he still had control and that France was in a great position of power

What happened in Setif?

Little boy brought an Algerian flag to VE day parade --> songs turned to Algerian chants --> Pied Noirs attacked to end the situation - cut off communist leaders hands.

Algerians mad --> violence spilled over the edge and revolted in 3 days of chaos from the Algerians in Setif and Guelma--> 103 europeans dead, hundreds more wounded.

Met with repression and collective punishment from the French.

6,000 (Fr) - 45,000 (FLN) Algerians dead.

Pied Noir vigilantes randomly shot civilians not wearing their Muslim armband,

How many killed in setif?

6,000-45,000

What means did the French use of repressing the Setif Massacre?

10,000 soldiers

800 shells

42 tons of explosives on small towns

What percentage increase of support did the FLN have?

Between 1956 and 1957, support for FLN went from 50-95%.

Who were the ALN?

Army Liberation Nationale = armed wing of the FLN led by Boumedienne.

Able to gain arms and military resistance from external groups (Cairo, Tunisia and Morocco support)

When was the FLN formed?

FLN formed in 1954 by leaders of various political groups

Why was the FLN so successful in garnering support?

FLN was the culmination of all ideology from all of the major political groups in Algeria.

Policy of socialist-Islam (impact of Lenin)

Impact of the French defeat in Indo-China?

1954 - Vietnamese war ended. French were defeated (9 years of war).

Convinced the FLN that their time had come and the French were finally able to be challenged and defeated.

1954 - Toussaint Rouge Day

Impact of (internal) Toussaint Rouge Day of 1954?

Directly called to the Algerians for the Algerian War of Independence.

FLN carried out attacks on military targets in Algiers --> broadcasted the message to call Algerians to arms from Cairo.

Exiled govt developing in Cairo (GPRA) - led by

Why were the French so reluctant to give up Algeria?

Tunisia and Morrocco were granted independence in 1956 --> French holding onto their last colony.

T+M were administrations whereas Algeria was under the territory of France. 80% of Pied Noirs (15% of population) had been born there, lived there their whole lives and were not about to give it up.

What violent methods did the Algerians use to gain independence?

violent - war of national liberation for political independence from their colonial power that was reluctant to recognise the country's rights.

When did the war start?

1954 - after Toussaint Rouge day. TRD led to extreme backlash from the French army - kept on escalating as it led to fights breaking out across the country in lots of areas.

What methods/tactics did the Algerians use in the war?

FLN guerillas launched armed revolts in the form of a terror campaign to push the french out.

Terror campaign - ambushes, surprise attacks, torture (kidnapping, murder and mutilation of civllians)

Guerilla warfare - Once the guerillas stopped fighting they merged back into the civilian population . Lack of supplies and manpower meant that the French had the advantage. However, the Algerians had the advantage of knowing their geography well (algerian territory/geography suited to guerilla warfare - high mountains and plateaus being varied across the region) --> allowed for resistance to hide in wild and undiscovered pockets of land.

Battle of Algiers in 1957

General Massu of the 10th Paratrooper Division used torture to oust the FLN leadership from Algiers and render it safe for Europeans. The use of torture, however, was criticized heavily (internationally and locally by the French)

What methods did the french use in the Algerian war?

French used helicopters to pursue fleeing units of the FLN.

Torture - "necessary evil to be used against the savages" (jacques mussu). Daily practices of mass rape, submerging victims in freezing water/excrement and repeated electrical shocks.

Created MASSiVE international criticism of their methods --> violation of human rights --> independence given !

What ended the Battle of Algiers?

Ended by the arrest of Saadi Yacef (main leader of FLN)

24,000 arrested and thousands and thousands died

Methods of torture revealed

Impact of the use of torture?

Use of torture won the battles for the French but lost the hearts and minds of the Algerian people.

- French officials resigned in protest --> sparked international outrage +French public became aware of the methods used by French (Jacques Mussu)

Torture methods were likened to the Gestapo --> loss of sympathy from the international community.

What led to the decision to end the war?

Growing criticism of the war effort from France

Lack of success in crushing the nationalist resistance

Changing views of France's role as a colonial power

Fought against the background of the Cold War

Egypt success - Algeria supplied by the communists

Why, in spite of military success did the French negotiate a ceasefire in May 1962?

French were militarily successful, but their methods came under sharp criticism from the international community (torture; kidnapping of leaders (ben balla in 1956)

French lost the war for public opinion (in France and intl)

When was the ceasefire organised?

March 1962 -- but continued violence between settler groups and FLN for months

When did the war actually end?

continued violence bwteen settler groups and FLN until July 3rd 1962.

thousands more died.

More damage and deaths in the 4 months after the ceasefire than in the entire 8 years of war --> brutality and violent last efforts of the pied noirs (OAS).

Who was the first president of Algeria and when was he elected?

Ahmed Ben Balla elected president of Algeria in September 1962

(acted as the compromise candidate)

Who overthrew Ben Balla and when?

Boumediene overthrew Ben Balla for president of Algeria in 1965 - had tight control over the military and leadership committee (as he was leader of the ALN)

Ben Balla's policies were highly unsuccessful - as they were the first attempts at Islamic Socialism and were attempting to rebuild a country from the ruins of war and colonialism.

Relative success of Ben Balla's presidency>

Relative success of Boumediene presidency?

Boumediene policies were much more successful (5 year plan)

Analysis of the independence movement?

The violence in Setif and Guerma showed the unviability of peaceful resistance to colonial rule in Algeria, despite several decades of organisation and the growing profile of the nationalist movement.

The war with France ultimately rendered the situation serious enough, both by causing enough internal turmoil in France that public opinion turned against the war, and making any sort of militant response to the nationalists untenable, that the French had to concede independence to Algeria.

While independence must be accredited as a direct result of the war, the war would likely not have happened or gained the support of Algerian Muslims without significant non-violent political organisation and activity in the years leading up to the conflict.

Independence was 'given' rather than achieved since the French conceded. This was brought upon by the internal turmoil in France against the torture; the lack of success of the military in crushing the Algerian resistance; the changing views of French as a colonial power; the background of the Cold War; the appointment of President de Gaulle.