Module 8 Animal Organs & Responses to Stimuli

centers, stimuli

Brain
➔ Controls every function in the human body (breathing, digestion, heart rate, etc.)
➔ Most hardworking organ; functions even when we are asleep (sleep ______)
➔ If we are braindead, other organs would still retain their basic functions but processing of _______ would not occur

oxygen, brain, beating, microcirculation

Heart
➔ In order for the body to function, it needs ______; oxygen is delivered to all parts of the body thanks to the heart
➔ ____ cannot function without the oxygen delivered to it through the pumping of the heart
➔ Even if you are braindead, your heart is still there for you
➔ Person only declared as dead if heart stops _______
➔ Important part of circulatory system: _______

microcirculation

Circulation of the blood in the smallest blood vessels, the microvessels of the microvasculature present within organ tissues.

homeostasis, electrolyte, hormones, red, bones, precise

Kidney
➔ Plays an important role in __________ by filtering out the wastes in our blood and regulating the fluid and ______ balance
➔ Produces ______ that control the blood pressure, produce ____ blood cells, and keep the ______ healthy and strong
➔ Very _____; reacts immediately to small changes regarding homeostasis in the body

transplanted, regenerate, detoxify

Liver
➔ Can be donated or ___________ to others with little risk of harming the donor
➔ Can ________ for both the donor and receiver up to its original size in a short period of time
➔ Can ______ the body

glutathione, oxygen, radicals

➔ Produces one of the greatest antioxidants: __________; important to fight off reactive _______ species produced by the mitochondria due to leakage in ETC
➔ Glutathione produced by the liver inactivates free ______; free radicals affect the integrity of biomolecules and lead to various effects such as ageing
➔ Taking in glutathione affects its production by the liver, making it inefficient; this makes us susceptible to oxidative damages

glycogen

Liver
➔ Stores _______; can be utilized as a source of energy later on

alveoli, phonation, initial, angiotensin

Lungs
➔ Responsible for exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide, particularly in the ______
➔ Acts as a generator to ________; supplies air to voicebox
➔ Acts as ______ barrier to outside environment; surface area of lungs is greater than that of the skin
➔ Produces certain important metabolites and enzymes (e.g., ACE or _________-converting enzyme)

first, pathogens, perspiration

Skin
➔ Protective layer; ____ line of defense
➔ Important for maintaining our immune system against invading _______
➔ Helps in maintaining homeostasis,
particularly during ________

nutrients

Small intestine
➔ Responsible for absorption of ________; without this, we won’t be able to absorb and utilize them

Water

Colon
➔ _____ absorption; without it we would get dehydrated

marrow, mineralizes, ions, interstitial, structural, internal

Bones
➔ Responsible for the production and maintenance of blood in the bone ______
➔ _________ itself and stores essential ____ like calcium within its ________ spaces
➔ ______ support; Without it, none of the other organs can organize themselves nor gain enough space to properly perform their functions
➔ Protects _______ organs
➔ Without this, we would have less motility

Animal organs concept map

Endoskeletal system

- is an internal skeleton composed of hard, mineralized tissue that also enables movement by attachment to muscles
1. Invertebrate
2. Vertebrate

Invertebrate endoskeletal system

- Do not have true bones as vertebrates

Vertebrate endoskeletal system

Axial

Vertebrate endoskeletal system
_______ skeleton
1. Skull
2. Vertebral column

Appendicular

Vertebrate endoskeletal system
_______ skeleton
1. Pectoral girdle + Forelimb
2. Pelvic girdle + Hindlimb

Muscular system

- is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle
- work with skeletal system to allow locomotion and motility
1. Invertebrate
2. Vertebrate

Invertebrate muscular system

Vertebrate muscular system

Parts
1. Origin (fixed end)
2. Belly
3. Insertion (movable end)

Actions
1. Extension vs flexion
2. Adduction vs abduction
3. Elevation vs depression

Extension vs flexion

Adduction vs abduction

Elevation vs depression

Digestive system

- consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion
1. Complete
2. Incomplete

Incomplete digestive system

- trematodes: is a class within the phylum Platyhelminthes. It includes two groups of parasitic flatworms, known as flukes
- digestive cavity with 1 opening only (mouth and anus)

Complete digestive system

- consists of a digestive tract with 2 openings

Insects

Complete digestive system
1. Foregut
2. Midgut
3. Hindgut

Amphibians

Complete digestive system
1. Buccal cavity
2. Body cavity

Toad digestive system

1. Esophagus
2. Stomach
3. Small intestine
4. Large intestine
5. Cloaca

Frog small intestine

- Villus in inner

Frog stomach

- Columnar cells present for better absorption

Respiratory system

the system for taking in oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide; in terrestrial animals this is accomplished by breathing
1. Tracheal system
2. Gill system
3. Lung system

Tracheal system

- insects and other invertebrates in phylum arthropoda
- openings in epidermis to allow gas exchange

Gill system

- marine organisms

Lung system

- terrestrial organisms

Circulatory system

- is made up of blood vessels that carry blood away from and towards the heart.
1. Open
2. Closed

Open circulatory system

- Arthropods, molluscs (except cephalopods)
- No vessels to contain the blood and flows freely through body
- Cockroach

Closed circulatory system

- Arthropods, Cephalopods, Vertebrates
- Blood can flow through vessels inside the body (arteries and veins)
- Humans and toads

Coronal plane

- Anterior (Ventral)
- Posterior (Dorsal)

Sagittal plane

- Lateral (Sinister, dexter)
- Medial

Transverse plane

- Cranial
- Caudal

Anterior

- Toward the front
- nearer the front, especially situated in the front of the body or nearer to the head.

Posterior

- Toward the back
- further back in position; of or nearer the rear
or hind end, especially of the body or a part of it.

Dorsal

- Posterior
- of, on, or relating to the upper side or back of an animal, plant, or organ.

Ventral

- Anterior
- of, on, or relating to the underside of an animal or plant; abdominal.

Proximal

- Toward a reference point (extremity)
- situated nearer to the center of the body or the point of attachment.

Distal

- Away from a reference point (extremity)
- situated away from the center of the body or from the point of attachment.

Cephalad/Cranial

- Head

Caudad

- Tail, tail end

Form

1. Shape
2. Size
3. Surface Area
4. Volume

Function

1. Locomotion
2. Thermoregulation
3. Substance exchange
4. Navigation

Male bullfrog external anatomy

moist, darker

Bull frog skin
- Is an amphibian so skin is smooth and _____
- _____ on dorsal side than ventral side
- Countershading

Webbing, jump

Bull frog appendages
- 2 forelegs (4 toes), 2 hindlegs (5 toes)
- _____ between toes helps it swim through water
- Longer hind legs help it ____ on land

larger, nuptial, male

Frog sex
- Females (at least 7 in/18cm) are ____ than males
- Measured from head to backbone
- Enlarged thumb (_______ pad) in males and slender in females
- Only ____ frogs have sound producing vocal sacs

nares, 3

Bull frog nares and eyes
- External _____ are anterior to eyes
- Has 2 large bulging eyes each with ___ eyelids:
a. open and close for land
b. transparent membrane for swimming underwater (becomes cloudy)

tympanic

Bullfrog hearing
- 2 ________ membranes (similar to human eardrum)
- Are larger in males (bigger than eyes) than in females (same size as eyes)

internal, Eustachian, esophagus, glottis

Bullfrog mouth
- Cut corners of the mouth to loosen the jaw
- Tongue is split in the middle and is attached towards the front of the mouth
- Nares open into the mouth cavity at the ________ nares
- Tiny teeth at the edge of the upper jaw for holding prey and near the internal nares
- ___________ tubes equalize pressure in the frog's ears while it is swimming
- _________ between tubes, leading mouth to stomach
- ____, below the mouth and opening of the trachea (epiglottis closes trachea when swallowing)

Parotid gland

- This gland contains bufotoxin, which is a neurotoxin. Be careful not to touch the excretions!

Hindlimb

- Each hind-limb consists of a thigh or femur, a shank or crus and a foot. While at rest most of the body weight is also displaced towards the hind limbs.
- This elongated hindlimb is responsible for the saltatory movement of toads.

Pes

- The scientific term for the instep or the middle portion where the digits (toes) in the hindlimb are attached.

Tympanic membrane

- It functions much like our eardrum does –the tympanum transmits sound waves to the middle and inner ear, allowing a frog to hear both in the air and below water.

Forelimb

- They provide body support during sitting or walking, and absorbs impact forces during landing.

Nares

- Nares are another word for nostrils. - Toads have two types of nares: external and internal.
- These two types of nostrils work together to provide oxygen. In addition to nares, they can also breathe through their skin.

Eyes

- Unlike humans, toads do not have involuntary saccadic eye movements and they also cannot perform "tracking eye movements".
- The lack of saccadic eye movements forces the toad to hold its eyes in rigid positions.
- Therefore, it must decide whether the object is "prey" or "non-prey" before moving itself.

Digits

- The thumb of the male toad is larger than the female.
- This feature is because of nuptial pads, which help the male toads to cling on the back of the female toad during amplexus.

Manus

- The manus refers to the hands which is includes the wrist (carpus) or the portion next to the forearm, the palm or the broad middle portion, and the digits or fingers.

Dorsal

pertains to the back surface of the toad

Ventral

refers to the abdominal side of the toad

Lateral

is the side view of the toad.

Anterior

is towards the head part (cranial) of the toad

Posterior

is towards the tail part (caudal).

Dissecting tools

Pithing needle

- used to sever the connection between the brain and the spinal cord

Pithing

- term used in immobilizing the toad by severing the spinal cord
- we damage its spinal cord so that all sensory signals from the body will not be received and processed by the brain
- toad is still alive and breathing through its skin

Dissecting scissors

- blunt end on top and pointed end at the bottom

Scalpel

- cut different parts of the body such as skin and muscle

Dissecting forceps

- helpful to grasp tissues and expose a particular area when cutting, mainly to prevent cutting ourselves

Dissecting pan

- aluminum tray filled with wax
- along with pins, used to stabilize the toad especially when observing its internal organs

Dorsal

- the great foramen is more accessible on the ______ side of the toad.
- this is where you are going to pith the toad

shank

- Poke the toad's _____ using the pithing needle to check if it demonstrates leg jerking
- pith the toad until the leg stops jerking

Ventral, posterior

- the best side to start skinning the toad is the ______ side
- typically loose skin is found on this side
- use scissors and scalpel to cut the skin, and forceps in grasping the skin
- point the scalpel upwards and cut from ________ to anterior end

distal

- After cutting the toad's skin midsaggitally, extend the incision towards the ____ end of the three points, as shown in the figure below.

fingers

- separate the thigh skin using your ______.

digits

- After pulling out the thigh from the skin, you can now simply remove the shank's skin by pulling it down towards the _____. This illustration is like pulling off your sock from your foot.

abdomen, attached

- To remove the skin on the _________ and lower jaw, simply flip the skin we cut awhile ago and use your scalpel or scissors to completely remove the skin on the throat and upper torso of the toad, as shown in the animation below.
- Keep the skin on the abdomen _______ to easily pull the skin when we deal with the backside of the toad.

Dorsal

- When dealing with the backside of the toad, in what view are we looking at the toad?

gloves

- Removing the skin on the upper limbs is similar with the lower limbs. We have to think that we are just pulling of a satin _____ from the toad's limbs.

Axial Skeleton

- run along a straight axis
- framework bones to which the appendicular skeleton is attached
1. Skull (yellow)
2. Vertebrae (green)

Skull dorsal

1. Nasal bone
2. Frontoparietal bone
3. Prootic bones
4. Orbit (eye sockets)

Skull ventral

1. Sphenethmoid
2. Parasphenoid
3. Angulo-splenial (attaches to quadratojugle)
4. Dentary (lower jaw)
5. Mento-meckelian

Skull anterior

Upper jaw
1. Premaxilla
2. Maxilla

Skull posterior

1. Exoccipital
2. Occipital condyles
3. Foramen magnum (leads to brain, pithing rod)

Skull lateral

1. Squamosal
2. Pterygoid
3. Quadratojugal

Vertebrae dorsal

- Has 10 segments
1. Atlas/Segment 1 (articulates with occipital condyles)
2. Segments 2-8 (typical vertebrate)
- Transverse processes (lateral projections)
3. Sacral vertebra/Segment 9 (most expanded transverse process)
4. Urostyle/Segment 10

Appendicular skeleton

- from the word "append" meaning attach
1. Forelimb (and pecrotral girdle)
2. Hindlimb (and pelvic girdle)

Pectoral girdle ventral

1. Clavicle
2. Sternum (breast bone)
3. Coracoid
4. Scapula
5. Glenoid fassa (socket to which arm is attached)
- clavicle vs coracoid (scapula is more interior and thinner)

Pectoral girdle dorsal

1. Suprascapula (cartilegenous)

Pectoral girdle lateral

- not all pectoral girdle will look the same