Psych Unit 9

Chapter 13

social psychologists

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

dispositional attribution

enduring traits

situational attribution

situational traits

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing other’s behaviors, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

attitude

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and event

peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness

central route persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and response with favorable thought

foot in the door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

cognitive dissonance

the psychological discomfort experienced when an individual holds conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes, or when their actions contradict their beliefs, leading to a drive to reduce that discomfort

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of out thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that out attitudes and out actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

chameleon effect

the unconscious tendency to mimic the behaviors, postures, mannerisms, and facial expressions of others, leading to a sense of connection and rapport

mood linkage

the phenomenon where people's moods are influenced and become synchronized with the moods of those around them, particularly in close, interactive, and enduring relationships

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informative social influence

influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality

defiance

a behavioral condition characterized by a persistent pattern of angry/irritable mood, argumentative/defiant behavior, and/or vindictiveness, especially towards authority figures

birkenhead

the psychological phenomenon of soldiers or individuals remaining calm and orderly in a crisis situation, even when facing imminent danger or death

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

social control

the power of the situation

personal control

the power of the individual

minority influence

the phenomenon where a smaller group or individual within a larger group can successfully influence the beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors of the majority

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feeling, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

implicit racial associations

subconscious attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner

unconscious patronization

treating someone as if they are less capable or knowledgeable than they are, without the person doing so consciously or intentionally, often stemming from implicit biases or stereotypes. 

race-influenced perceptions

how societal constructs and categorizations based on race can shape and bias our perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors toward individuals and groups, often leading to stereotypes and prejudice. 

reflexive bodily responses

automatic, involuntary reactions to specific stimuli that occur without conscious thought, serving to protect the body or maintain homeostasis

just-world phenomemon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

blame the victim dynamic

where individuals or groups attempt to cope with the bad things that have happened to others by assigning blame to the victim of the trauma or tragedy

social identity

the part of an individual's self-concept derived from their knowledge of belonging to a social group, along with the emotional and evaluative significance of that membership

ingroup

“us”-people with whom we are a common identity

outgroup

“them”-those perceived as different or apart from out in-group

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor your own group

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. Germans call this Schadenfreude

outgroup homogeneity

the tendency to perceive members of an outgroup as more similar to each other than members of your ingroup, often leading to stereotypes

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias

own-age bias

the tendency for people to recognize faces more accurately when they belong to their own age group compared to faces of other age groups

hindsight bias

a type of cognitive bias that causes people to convince themselves that a past event was predictable or inevitable

aggression

any act intended to harm someone physically or emotionally

monoamine oxidase gene

gene that helps break down neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin. Sometimes called warrior gene

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration-the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal-creates anger, which can generate aggression

agression-replacement program

a cognitive-behavioral intervention program designed to help individuals, particularly young people, improve their social skills, anger control, and moral reasoning to reduce aggressive behaviors

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

lemmings

game with a goal to help others, increases real life helping

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them

reward theory of attraction

we will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us, including those who are both able and willing to help us achieve our goals

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

physical arousal

the body's heightened state of activity, readiness, and alertness, often triggered by stress, excitement, or emotional reactions, and characterized by changes in heart rate, breathing, and other bodily functions

cognitive appraisal

a psychological process where individuals evaluate and interpret events or situations in their environment

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

oxytocin

hormone that supports feeling of trust, calmness, and bonding with the mate

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give in to it

self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

positive support

a proactive approach that aims to improve quality of life by promoting desirable behaviors and reducing challenging ones through understanding the reasons behind behaviors and using reinforcement strategies

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

diffusion of responsibility

a psychological phenomenon that describes when people feel less responsible to act when others are present

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to minimize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each pursuing their self-interests rather than the good of the group, becoming caught in mutually destructive behavior

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction-a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

actor/observer bias

tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute to their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes

social comparison (upward of downward)

a psychological concept that describes how individuals evaluate their own abilities, opinions, and beliefs by comparing themselves to others

elaboration likelihood model

when we actively process a message, when we mentally elaborate on it, we more often retain it. more central route persuasion, more retention

halo effect

we assume beautiful or famous people are especially smart or trustworthy. applies to peripheral route persuasion

door to the face technique

linked to foot in door phenomenon. start with an unreasonable request, after turned dow, following up with moderate request looks more attractive

ethnocentrism

the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture