AP Psych Study Guide Terms

Psychology

Scientific study of behavior and mental processes in both humans and animals

Behavior

Anything you can observe

Mental Processes

Individual thoughts and feelings, cannot be directly observed

Psychology is a science because...?

1. Uses the scientific method to answer research questions

2. Uses Empirical Evidence

Perspectives

Psychologists use a variety of ways to explain why someone may act a certain way

Evolutionary Perspective

Basic principles of evolution & natural selection and applying them to a psychological phenomenon

Behavioral Perspective

Focused on observable behavior and learned behaviors. (People/Animals are controlled by their environment)

Humanistic Perspective

Human capacity for choice & growth to fulfill their potential. Positive.

Biological Perspective

Genetics and brain chemistry effects thinking/behavior. (Physical & Biological processes)

Psychodynamic Perspective

Behavior is determined by past experiences that are left in the unconscious (childhood)

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on memory, intelligence, problem solving, language & learning (Processes of the mind) influences behavior. [ex. worried what others think]

Sociocultural Perspective

Society & Culture shapes behavior, cognitive and eclectic approach.

Biopsychosocial Approach

Eclectic combining links between genetic & environment.

[ex. 1-Biological 2-Psychological 3-Sociocultural]

Basic Research

Increase scientific knowledge base

Applied Research

Research to find a solution to specific problems

Quantitative Data

Numerical, qualities

Qualitative Data

Description, non-numerical

Case Study

An observation technique in limited individuals is studied (Rare & Complex)

Limitations of a Case Study

Unrepresented. Not much potential to apply to greater population

Strengths of a Case Study

1. Lots of information

2. Sheds light on problems that are unethical to study in other ways

Survey Method

Self-reports of symptoms, behavior, and belief etc.

Limitation of Survey Method

Responses aren't always accurate

Strengths of Survey Method

Large sample size and information

Naturalistic Observation

Careful observation of animals or people in their natural environment.

Limitations of Naturalistic Observation

1. No control

2. Bias

3. Doesn't allow for firm conclusions about cause and effect.

Strengths of Naturalistic Observation

1. Observe in natural setting

2. First stages of research

Hawthorne Effect "Observer Effect"

When people know they're being watched they are less likely to behave naturally.

Observer Bias "Research Bias"

Unconsciously skewing observation to fit to their research goals.

Correlational Studies

Research used to see if 2 variables are related & make prediction based on relationship (no manipulation)

Limitations of Correlational Studies

Correlation is not cannot be taken to imply causation

Strengths of Correlational Studies

Allows researcher to clearly see if there is a relationship between variables

Correlation Coefficient (r)

The direction of the relationship between variables and its strength, helps us see how close two things vary together. Thus, one predicts the other.

Is -0.49 stronger than 0.4?

YES, -0.49 is closer to -1

0 is...

-1 and 1 are...

Weak correlation

Strong correlation

Scatterplot

A graph to display data to show a relation between 2 variables

Positive correlation

Increasing or decreasing together

Negative correlation

As one is increasing the other is decreasing

Illusory (no) correlation

No correlation between variables

Third Variable Problems

Researcher cannot rule out the possibility that a 3rd variable causes both other variables to increase or decrease

Experimental Method

Only way to establish causes & effect relation between 2 variables. (Change in one changes another)

Strengths of Experimental Method

1. Researchers control situations

2. Identify cause and effect

Limitations of Experimental Method

Can create unrealistic situation

Variable

Anything that can change

Independent Variable (IV) "Treatment"

Factor that the experiment controls and manipulates (If __ then)

Dependent Variable (DV) "Outcome"

Being measured/tested in an experiment

Cofounding Variable "Lurking"

Anything that can affect relationship IV and DV

Operational Definitions

Definition of the variable in terms of precisely how it is to be measured (allows others to replicate experiment)

Population

All individuals in a group which the study applies to.

Confederate

Individuals who seem to be participants but are actually apart of the research team

Representative Sample

Sample that closely matches the characteristics of its whole population

Random Sample

Select people in research in a way that everyone in the population has an equal chance of being included

Control group

No treatment, Normal group.

Experimental Group

Group exposed to the independent variable and receives manipulation.

Random Assignment

Process that ensures all members have an equal chance of being placed (assigned) in control or experiment group.

Quasi Experiment

Experiment but participants are not randomly assigned to the experiment group. (IV can't be random)

Weakness of Quasi Experiment

Lack of random assignment can weaken conclusions

Placebo Condition

Allows to separate effects of variables from expectations from participants

Single-Blind Studies

Participants don't know what treatment group they're in experiment or control.

Double-Blind Studies

Both participants and researchers eliminate researcher bias.

Frequency Distribution Table

Arragnement of scores indicating the frequency each score on group of scores.

Histogram

Plot shows underlying frequency distribution (Shape of a set of continuous data) *allows to look for outliers/skew

Measure of Central Tendency

Describes the average or most typical scores for a set research data distribution

Mean "Average"

1. Add all numbers

2.Divide numbers by # of numbers

Median "Middle"

A single score that represents a whole set of numbers

Mode "Most"

Most frequently occurring score in a data set.

Range

Spread distribution (High-Low)

Standard Deviation

Scores in a group differ from the mean. (Large SD- More spread out, Small SD- Bunched)

Z Score

The number of standard deviations from the mean data point. (-3 SD, 3 SD)

Normal Distributions

"Bell Curve" Mean, median, mode is all the same #.

SD -1,+1 =

SD -2,+2=

SD -3,+3=

1. 68.26%

2. 95.44%

3. 99.72%

Negative Skew (Skewed Left)

Mean shifts to the left, is less than the rest of the data.

Positive Skew (Skewed Right)

Mean is greater to the right

Inferential Statistics

Are used to interpret data to draw conclusions (small sample to large sample)

Statistical significance

A measure of likelihood that the difference between groups are a result from a real difference rather than chance.

P-Value

Common cut off is 0.05 (5%) is statistically significant

Null Hypothesis

Predicts there will not be a significant relation.

(What researchers are trying to disprove)

Meta-Analysis (Technique)

Combining data from other studies to reach a conclusion

Ethics/General Principle

Correct rules of conduct and moral principles necessary when carrying out research. (Psychologists do not harm) *All experiments cause stress

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Review proposals for research that includes human participants *Required

Informed Consent

Written description of what participants can expect, including potential risks. *Must sign

Discounting Participation

Participants are capable of discounting participation

Confidentiality

Any data collected in an experiment must remain confidential.

Deception

Misleading participants to maintain the integrity of an experiment but not to the point of harm.

Debriefing

Process of giving participants a completed research project a fuller explanation than what was possible before.

Animal Testing

Animals are acceptable substitution for research that would be unethical for humans

Why are animals used in research?

1. Shorter lives

2. easy to control

3. similar behavior

Charles Darwin

Evolutionary Perspective - Natural Selection/Evolution

Dorothea Dix

Advocated for the mentally ill. Created the first mental hospitals.

Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalytic Perspective

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorism/Behavioral Perspective, Operant Conditioning, Schedules of Reinforcement

John B. Watson

Behaviorism/Behavioral Perspective, Aversive Conditioning

Carl Rogers

Humanistic Perspective, Client centered therapy

Counseling Psychologist

help people adapt to change or make changes

Developmental Psychologist

study psychological development throughout lifespan

Educational Psychologist

Focuses on how effective teaching and learning take place

Experiment Psychologist

Does research and adds new knowledge to the field.

Industrial Psychologist

Aims to improve productivity and quality of work by applying psychological principles.

Personality Psychologist

focus on traits, attitudes and goals of the individual

Social Psychologist

How a person's mental life and behavior are shaped by interactions with others

Positive Psychologist

focuses on what makes life most living, well-being