Psychological Assessment Module 1

introduction, interviewing techniques, behavioral observations

Testing

process of measuring psychology-related variables

Assessment

Gathering and integration of pscyhology-related data in order to make an evaluation through the use of tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observations, and other measurement procedures

Test

• A “measurement device or technique used to quantify behavior or aid in the understanding and prediction of behavior”

• Past, current, or future behavior

• behavior could be elicited or it could be naturally occurring

Items

basic unit of measuring behavior

Types of behavior

Overt and Covert

Overt

observable behaviors

Covert

cannot be directly observes behaviors

• takes place within an individual

Types of Tests

• individual vs group

• traits vs states

• what is being measured:

  • human ability

  • personality

Human Ability

scored in terms of speed, accuracy, or both

Achievement

previous learning

Aptitude

potential for learning

Intelligence

General ability to solve problems, adapt to changing circumstances, think abstractly, and profit from experience

Structured Personality Tests

• Self-report items

• “true” or “false”

• Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree

Projective Personality Tests

• Vague stimulus, vague instructions, vague requirements

• Drawings, stories from pictures, inkblots

Projective Assumption

a person’s interpretation of an ambiguous stimulus will reflect his/her unique qualities

Reliability

• accuracy, dependability, consistency, or repeatability of results

• degree to which test scores are free from measurement errors

Validity

• meaning and usefulness of test results

• degree to which a certain inference or interpretation based on a test is appropriate

Test administration

• standardized

• creating equal assumptions

Issues of Testing and Assessment

• Race and ability 

• Cultural differences

• Use of foreign-made tests

• Ethical use

China

Country that first implemented tests

Han Dynasty

(206BC-220AD) used test batteries for civil law, military, affairs, agriculture, revenue, & geography

Ming Dynasty

(1368-1644AD) national multi-stage testing program

• Local & regional testing centers

• Provincial & national

Charles Darwin

published the Origin of Species

• concept of adaptation and survival of the fittest

• certain characteristics are important in thriving in an environment

Francis Galton

Published Hereditary Genius

• Sensory & motor functions

  • Reaction time

  • Visual acuity

  • Physical strength

James McKeen Cattell

Found that sensory & motor functions are not related to intelligence; “mental test”

Kraepelin

developed examinations for the emotionally impaired

Binet-Simon Scale

first intelligence scale

Yerkes, et. al.

developed two structured group tests of human abilities

Army Alpha

structured group test for reading recruits

Army Beta

structured group test for non-reading recruits

Achievement Tests

• Standardized multiple choice questions

• Used a large comparison group

• Ease of administration and scoring led to more use

• Stanford Achievement Test (1923)

Traits

relatively enduring dispositions, tendencies to act, think or feel in a certain manner in any given circumstance

Woodworth Personal Data Sheet

• Structured personality test, yes-no format, 116 items

• Items are taken at face value

• Used for army recruits

Rorschach Inkblot Test

• Became popular in the 1940s to 1950s

• “What might this be?”

Thematic Apperception Test

• Henry Murray & Christina Morgan (1935)

• Ambiguous pictures as stimuli
  for stories

Eugenics Movement

Movement aimed to improve the genetic quality of the human population through selective breeding and sterilization

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

• (1943)

• New era of structured personality test

• Use of empirical methods to determine meaning of test response

Cattell’s 16PF

Factor analytic method that measures an individual's personality traits based on 16 factors

Virgilio Enriquez

Father of Filipino psychology / "Ama ng Sikolohiyang Pilipino"

Sikolohiyang Pilipino

• branch of psychology that focuses on the study of Filipino identity, culture, and experiences.

• emphasizes the importance of indigenous concepts and constructs

Interview

• Typically face-to-face

• Focus is both on verbal and nonverbal behavior 

• via phone, online, email, text

• Purpose: diagnostic, treatment, selection

Portfolio

Sample of one’s ability and accomplishments

• drawings, essays, report cards…

Case History Data

Any other archival information

• pictures, letters, doodles…

Behavioral Observation

• Monitoring action of self and others

• Quantitative and qualitative

• Use of rating scales

• Naturalistic observations

• Complements test data

• Helps formulate an impression of the client

• Particularly important in clinical assessments

Role-play Tests

• Clients are directed to act as if they are in a certain situation

• Pay attention to thoughts, behaviors, and skills

Frequency, Intensity, Duration

basic elements of behavior

Direct Observation

• Testing situation

• Naturalistic Setting

  • Home

  • School/Work

  • Social setting

Indirect Observation

• Report of persons familiar to the client

  • Family members

  • Supervisors/ teachers

  • Friends/ spouse

• Evidence of Work

  • Letters and journals

  • Art works

  • Grades and evaluations

Behaviors to Observe

• General appearance

• Orientation to time, place, and person

• Affect and Mood 

• Language and Expression

• Attention and Focus

• Memory

• Idiosyncratic behaviors

• Impressions useful for the purpose of the assessment process

Reactivity

Observers become more reliable in their observations because they know that they are being supervised

Drift

Tendency to veer away from set rules and descriptions of behaviors once training has ended

Contrast Effect

Tendency to rate the same behaviors differently, according to the surrounding context

Issues in Behavioral Observation

• More prone to making errors

• Reactivity

• Drift

• People are overconfident that they can accurately judge the behavior of others

• We are poor at detecting lies

• Poor validity of integrity tests

Structured Interview

• Standardized set of questions

• Focused on a specific area

• Narrow and restricted

• Directive

Unstructured Interview

• Unstandardized

• Touches on a variety of areas

• Broad and unrestricted

• Non-directive

Individual and group

two conduct of Interviews

Interview as a Test

• Method of gathering data

• Used to make predictions

• Evaluated in terms of reliability

• Evaluated in terms of validity

Formal and informal settings

two uses of interviews

Social facilitation

• Tendency to act like models around us

Heller

• found that interviewers became angry when interviewees were angry

Good interviewing attitudes

Warmth, Genuineness, Acceptance, Understanding, Openness, Honesty, Fairness

Judging/Evaluative statement

• “good” or “bad”

• “excellent” or “terrible”

• Message of approval or disapproval

I: “What other bad things do you do to survive in
college?”

Probing statement

• Asking “Why?”

  • Defensive

  • Demanding an explanation

  • Can also lead participant to philosophize

• Level of comfort of the interviewee is challenged

• Instead, say “What made you...?” or “How?” or “Tell me.”

I: “Why are you like that?”

Hostile statement

• Display of anger

I: “Wow... you’re a bad student...”

False reassurance

• Underestimation of the situation

• Lack of understanding

• Invalidation of the interviewee

I: “It’s okay, you’ll turn out fine even if you cheat.”

Effective Responses

• keep the interaction flowing

• open-ended questions

• adequate reassurance

Transitional phrases

• “And...”

• “Yes, I see...”

• “Go on...”

• “Uhuh...”

• Nodding, leaning forward

Verbatim playback

• Repeating the interviewee’s last response

C: ““When I forget to review for an exam, I just copy from my seatmate.”
I: “...you just copy from your seatmate.”

Paraphrasing and restating

• Rewording the statement of the client in a way that captures what he/she means

• Shows the client that you are listening

C: “When I forget to review for an exam, I just copy from my seatmate.”
I: “When you forget, you resort to copying.”

Summarizing

The interviewer pulls together the meaning of several sequences of responses of the interviewee

Clarification

• Could be in question form, asking what the client meant

• Could be in statement form, expressing what the client is wanting to say

C: “When I forget to review for an exam, I just copy from my seatmate.”
I: “What do you mean by ‘forget’?” or
I: “It sounds like you have found a strategy to get by...”

Empathy or Understanding

• Communicating to the client that you understand how he/she feels, by identifying the feelings within the response of the client

C: “When I forget to review for an exam, I just copy from my seatmate.”
I: “It sounds like you feel nonchalant about this, is that right?”

Confrontation

• Sometimes needed

  • Highlights discrepancy or inconsistency

• Best used by more experienced interviewers

5 Levels of Empathy and Understanding

Developed by Carkhubff & Berenson

Level 1

• no relation to previous statement

Sarah: Victor, look at my new dress
Victor: I sure hope it doesn’t rain today

Level 2

• superficial awareness of the meaning of the statement

Sarah: I feel good. I just got a new beautiful dress.
Victor: I feel bad. It’s probably going to rain

Level 3

• minimum level of responsiveness

• Paraphrasing, verbatim playback, clarification and restatements

Victor: I feel bad, it might rain.
Sarah: You feel bad because it might rain.
Victor: Yes, because there will be no football game if it rains.

Level 4

accurate empathy and adds to the statement given

Level 5

significant addition to the previous statement

Active Listening

the use of the different effective responses to show the client that you understand his/her thoughts and feelings

Evaluation Interview

• Beginning with open-ended questions

• Direct questions

• Listening, facilitating & clarifying

• Doesn’t work well with individuals who require more direct questions: intellectually limited, uncooperative, and children

Structured Clinical Interviews

• Specific set of questions

• Sequential order

• Rules on probing

• Use of norms

• Cut off scores are set, indicating presence or absence of a disorder

Case History Interview

• Open-ended questions

• Level 3 empathy statement

• Developmental approach

  • Infancy to present

  • Development of habits and practices

  • Major events: work history, medical history, family history

• In-depth description of factors most important to the interviewee

Mental Status Examination

• Integral in psychiatric and neurological exams

• Help diagnose

  • Psychosis

  • Brain damage

  • Until mental health issues

Halo effect

make specific conclusions based on a general impression

General standoutishness

one prominent characteristic biases interviewer’s judgement

Cross-cultural Differences

• increase cultural awareness

• knowing oneself

• flexibility

• looking beyond oneself

Reliability of Interviews

• 23 to .97 in rating of traits (Wagner, 1949)

• .20 to .85 for general ability

• Better figures for structured interviews

• Specific questions asked in a specific order tends to be more stable

• Can limit content of interview

NOTE:
.70 - .80: good enough for research
.95: for diagnosis or evaluation

Interview’s honesty, memory, and skills

Factors that affect reliability