Chapter 10 psych

What are the main topics covered in Chapter 10

Motivation, Hunger and Eating, Sexual Behavior, Emotion.

What is motivation?

Motivation refers to the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal.

What are the two types of motivation?

Intrinsic motivation (arising from internal satisfaction) and extrinsic motivation (arising from external rewards).

What is the overjustification effect?

It occurs when intrinsic motivation is diminished because extrinsic rewards are introduced, making the activity feel like "work."

What role does culture play in motivation?

Collectivist cultures may emphasize doing things for the group or family, while individualistic cultures focus on personal achievement.

Who proposed the instinct theory of motivation?

William James.

What is homeostasis?

The tendency to maintain a balance or optimal level within a biological system

What does drive theory of motivation suggest?

It suggests that deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs, resulting in psychological drives that direct behavior to restore balance.

What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?

It states that optimal performance is achieved at a moderate level of arousal, but difficult tasks are best performed under lower arousal, and simple tasks under higher arousal.

What is self-efficacy, according to Albert Bandura?

Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their capability to complete a task, which motivates behavior.

What are the three social motives mentioned?

Achievement, affiliation, and intimacy.

What is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?

A theory proposing that human needs range from basic (physiological) to complex (self-actualization), typically depicted as a pyramid.

What need is at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

Self-actualization.

What is self-actualization according to Maslow?

Achieving one's full potential; a life-long process.

What was the additional top tier Maslow proposed later in life?

Self-transcendence.

What is self-transcendence?

Striving for meaning and purpose beyond oneself.

Give an example of self-transcendence.

Gandhi's hunger strikes for political reasons.

What physiological signal triggers hunger when the stomach is empty?

Stomach contractions and hunger pangs.

Which organs generate chemical signals when blood glucose levels drop?

The pancreas and liver.

What hormone is released by fat cells to induce feelings of satiety?

Leptin.

What areas of the brain are crucial in hunger regulation?

The hypothalamus and hindbrain.

What is metabolic rate?

The amount of energy expended in a given period of time.

What does the set-point theory of body weight propose?

Each individual has a genetically predetermined ideal body weight, or set point.

What are some criticisms of the set-point theory?

It doesn't account for social and environmental factors in body weight regulation.

What BMI range classifies an adult as overweight?

A BMI between 25 and 29.9.

What BMI is considered obese?

A BMI of 30 or higher.

Name three health risks associated with obesity.

Cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes, and sleep apnea.

What is bulimia nervosa?

An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors like purging or excessive exercise.

What is anorexia nervosa?

An eating disorder involving starvation and excessive exercise, often accompanied by a distorted body image.

Name two health consequences of anorexia nervosa

Bone loss and heart failure.

What is binge eating disorder?

Binge eating without compensatory behaviors, followed by distress and guilt.

Which brain area is critical for the ability to engage in sexual behavior but does not affect motivation in male rats?

The medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus.

Which brain structures are important for sexual motivation in animals?

The amygdala and nucleus accumbens.

What did Alfred Kinsey contribute to research on human sexuality?

He conducted large-scale surveys and published "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male" and "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female," which opened public dialogue on sexual behavior.

What scale did Alfred Kinsey develop to categorize sexual orientation?

The Kinsey Scale.

What did Masters and Johnson research, and how did they collect data?

They studied physiological responses during sexual behavior by observing participants and measuring various physiological variables.

What are the four phases of the sexual response cycle identified by Masters and Johnson?

Excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

What is the refractory period in the sexual response cycle?

It is the period after orgasm during which an individual cannot experience another orgasm.

Define sexual orientation.

It is an individual's emotional, romantic, and erotic attraction toward others, which includes identities such as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, and more.

What does research suggest about the causes of sexual orientation?

Sexual orientation has an underlying biological component, with evidence pointing to genetic and brain structure differences.

Is sexual orientation a choice, and can it be changed through conversion therapy?

No, sexual orientation is a stable characteristic and cannot be changed; conversion therapy is widely discredited by scientific research.

What is reparative therapy, and what is its effectiveness?

Reparative therapy, also known as conversion therapy, claims to change a person's sexual orientation but is widely discredited. Research shows it is ineffective and potentially harmful (Human Rights Campaign, n.d.).

What is gender identity?

Gender identity refers to one's internal sense of being male, female, neither, both, or another gender, which may differ from the sex assigned at birth.

What is transgender?

Transgender people have a gender identity that differs from the sex they were assigned at birth. They may use terms like "non-binary" and "trans" to describe themselves.

What is gender dysphoria?

Gender dysphoria is a diagnosis in the DSM-5 for people who experience distress due to a mismatch between their gender identity and their assigned sex at birth.

What is the difference between social, legal, and medical transition for transgender individuals?

Social transition involves changing presentation, name, and pronouns; legal transition involves changing gender markers on official documents; medical transition may involve surgery or hormone therapy to align physical traits with gender identity.

What is cross-dressing, and how is it different from being transgender?

Cross-dressing is wearing clothing typically associated with another gender for self-expression, not necessarily tied to gender identity, unlike transgender individuals.

What does it mean to be intersex?

Intersex refers to individuals with sex traits that don't fit typical definitions of male or female, involving variations in reproductive anatomy, hormones, or chromosomes.

What is cisgender?

Cisgender refers to individuals whose gender identity aligns with the sex they were assigned at birth.

How is gender identity evolving in younger generations?

Studies show millennials and Gen Z increasingly see gender as a spectrum, with many identifying as transgender or gender non-conforming, and using gender-neutral pronouns.

What was the outcome of the David Reimer case?

David Reimer, raised as a girl after a botched circumcision, eventually identified as male. His case showed the complexity of gender identity, challenging earlier theories that socialization can override biology.

What is emotion according to psychology?

Emotion is a subjective state of being that results from a combination of experience, expression, appraisal, and physiological responses (Levenson et al., 1991).

What is the difference between emotion and mood?

Emotion is intense and often consciously experienced in response to an event, while mood is a prolonged, less intense state that may not have a specific trigger.

What does the James-Lange theory of emotion propose?

This theory suggests emotions result from physiological arousal, meaning you feel fear because your body is aroused (e.g., increased heart rate) in response to a stimulus.

What does the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion propose?

The Cannon-Bard theory states that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously but independently.

What is the facial feedback hypothesis?

This hypothesis suggests that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences, such as smiling making you feel happier (Soussignan, 2002).

What is the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion?

This theory argues that emotions are a combination of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal, where context labels arousal, resulting in an emotional experience.

What is cognitive appraisal theory in emotion?

This theory posits that emotion depends on how an individual appraises or interprets a situation. Two people can experience different emotions in the same situation depending on their appraisal.

What was the main finding of the Schachter & Singer (1962) study regarding physiological arousal and emotional experience?

Participants who were not expecting physiological arousal were more likely to report experiencing emotions (euphoria or anger) based on the confederate's behavior, while those who expected arousal reported none.

What is a polygraph, and why is its validity questioned?

A polygraph, or lie detector test, measures physiological arousal to determine if someone is lying. Its validity is questioned because there's no consistent evidence linking specific patterns of physiological arousal to dishonesty.

What does Lazarus's cognitive-mediational theory propose?

Lazarus's theory asserts that emotions are determined by our appraisal of stimuli, which mediates between the stimulus and the emotional response.

What is automatic emotion regulation (AER)?

AER refers to the non-deliberate control of emotions, allowing individuals to manage their emotional responses without active thought, much like riding a bicycle.

How can adaptive AER impact health outcomes?

Adaptive AER leads to better health outcomes by helping individuals experience or mitigate stressors more effectively than those with maladaptive AER.

What is the constructivist theory of emotions proposed by Barrett?

Barrett suggested that emotions are not innate but constructed from experiences and predictions, meaning that identical physiological states can lead to different emotions based on context.

According to Zajonc, how do some emotions occur in relation to cognition?

Zajonc proposed that some emotions can occur independently of cognitive interpretation, such as immediate reactions to unexpected stimuli.

What role does the amygdala play in emotional processing?

The amygdala is critical for processing emotional information, especially fear and anxiety, and plays a role in forming emotional memories.

How does the hippocampus relate to emotional processing?

The hippocampus integrates emotional experiences with cognition, and its structure and function are linked to mood and anxiety disorders.

What are cultural display rules?

Cultural display rules are standards that govern how emotions are expressed within a culture, influencing the display and recognition of emotions.

What are the seven universal facial expressions of emotion identified by Ekman?

Happiness, surprise, sadness, fright, disgust, contempt, and anger.

What challenges do individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) face regarding emotions?

Individuals with ASD may have difficulty recognizing and expressing emotions, which can affect their social interactions.

What are the differences between covert and overt emotion regulation strategies?

Covert strategies occur internally within an individual, while overt strategies involve external actions or interactions with others.

What did Aldao and Dixon (2014) find regarding emotion regulation strategies and psychopathology?

They found that overt emotional regulation strategies were better predictors of psychopathology than covert strategies.

What is pregaming, and how is it related to emotion regulation strategies?

Pregaming is drinking heavily before a social event; studies suggest a complex relationship between pregaming, emotion regulation strategies, and alcohol-related problems.

What is anorexia nervosa?

An eating disorder characterized by an individual maintaining body weight that is well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise.

What is bariatric surgery?

A type of surgery that modifies the gastrointestinal system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limit how much digested food can be absorbed.

What does the basolateral complex of the brain do?

It has dense connections with various sensory areas of the brain, critical for classical conditioning and attaching emotional value to memory.

Describe binge eating disorder.

An eating disorder characterized by binge eating and associated distress.

What is body language?

Emotional expression through body position or movement.

What is bulimia nervosa?

An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging.

What does the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion state?

Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time.

What is the central nucleus of the brain involved in?

Attention and regulating the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems’ activity.

What is the cognitive-mediational theory of emotion?

Our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus.

What are cultural display rules?

Culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of emotions that are acceptable.

Define distorted body image.

Individuals view themselves as overweight even though they are not.

What does drive theory propose?

Deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that result in psychological drive states directing behavior to meet the need.

What is emotion?

A subjective state of being often described as feelings.

Describe the excitement phase of the sexual response cycle.

The phase that involves sexual arousal.

What is extrinsic motivation?

Motivation that arises from external factors or rewards.

What does the facial feedback hypothesis suggest?

Facial expressions can influence our emotions.

Define gender dysphoria.

A diagnostic category in DSM-5 for individuals who experience distress as a result of their gender identity not aligning with their sex assigned at birth.

What is gender identity?

An individual’s sense of being male, female, neither of these, both, or another gender

What is a habit?

A pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage.

Define heterosexual attraction.

Emotional, romantic, and/or erotic attractions to opposite-sex individuals.

What is the hierarchy of needs?

A spectrum of needs ranging from basic biological needs to social needs to self-actualization.

What is an instinct?

A species-specific pattern of behavior that is unlearned.

Define intrinsic motivation.

Motivation based on internal feelings rather than external rewards.

What does the James-Lange theory of emotion assert?

Emotions arise from physiological arousal.

What is leptin?

A hormone involved in satiety.

Define metabolic rate.

The amount of energy expended in a given period of time.

What is morbid obesity?

An adult with a BMI over 40.